Psych Unit 1 Vocab

Hereditary v Environment

natural selection

process by which organisms with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits to future generations

-explains how psychological traits and behavior have evolved over time due to environmental pressures)

evolutionary psychology

the study of evolution of behavior and the mind, how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved to enhance survival and reproductive success, using principles of natural selection

evolutionary perspective

the perspective of evolutionary psychology (seeks to understand behaviors and mental processes through an evolutionary lens)

nature “genes”

the inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual’s psychological development, traits, behavior, and cognitive abilities

nurture “environment”

the environment influences and experiences that shape an individual’s psychological development, behaviors, and cognitive processes

identical/monozygotic twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organism

fraternal/dizygotic twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs; they are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they shared a prenatal environment

heredity

the transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring

genetic predisposition

the inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents

eugenics

the belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones (discriminatory practices)

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and the limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Understanding the Nervous System

nervous system

the body’s communication network consisting of a complex system of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord; command center of the body, processes information, coordinating responses, regulating bodily functions

spinal cord

vital pathway for transmitting sensory information from the body to the brain and motor commands from the brain to the body

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

“the sides”: everything else but brain and spinal cord, consists of all the nerves and the ganglia

autonomic nervous system

division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions, it operates automatically, without conscious control

-consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

sympathetic nervous system

responsible for activating the body’s fight or flight response in times of stress or danger

-increases heart rate, dilates airways, and redirects blood flow to essential organs, preparing the body to respond to percevied threats

parasympathetic nervous system

responsible for promoting relaxation and restoring body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger

-slows heart rate, constricts airways, and enhances digestion, allowing the body to conserve energy and recover from stressors

somatic nervous system

division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling voluntary movement and relaying sensory information from the body to the central nervous

-muscle movement and coordination, sensory feedback, motor response

reflex arc

neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allowing for rapid, automatic responses to sensory stimuli without conscious thought (primitive reflex)

-sensory neurons detect stimuli and send signals to spinal cord, interneurons relay info to motor neurons: trigger reflexive muscle/gland response

-to protect the body and enable quick reactions to potential dangers

the homunculus mapper

a photo that showcases the sensitivity on your body (most sensitive parts are enlarged)

-there is a map of your body on your brain’s cortex but it isn’t proportional to the actual space/sensitivity

Foundations of Neural Communication

neuron

specialized cell that serves as the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals through the body

-consists of three main parts: the cell body (soma), dendrites, and axon

cell body (soma)

central part of the neuron that contains the nucleus (“life support center”)

dendrites

branch-like extensions of the neuron that receive signals/messages from other neurons or sensory receptors

axon

long, slender projection of the neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body toward other neurons, muscles, or glands (covered by the myelin sheath)

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myelin sheath

fatty substance surrounds, insulates nerve fibers, and covers the axon of neurons, and helps speed neural impulses

action potential (neural impulse)

brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron (occurs when a neuron receives a stimulus)

-causes the inside of the cell to be more positively charged than the outside

gilial cells

the “support cells” of the nervous system providing structural support, insulation, and nourishment to neurons

-maintaining brain health and supporting neuronal function

motor neurons

nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to muscles, glands, and organs, initiating and controlling voluntary and involuntary movements

-cause muscles to contract or relax)

sensory neurons

specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory information from sensory receptors, such as those in the skin, muscles, and organs, to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

-detect various stimuli: touch, temperature, and environmental changes

interneurons

nerve cells that serve as connectors within the central nervous system, relaying signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons

neural transmission

the process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals

synapse

small junction or gap where a nerve cell passes electrical (protein channels) or chemical (chemical messengers: neurotransmitters) signals to another cell

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron- the minimum amount of stimulation necessary to produce a response

all-or-nothing response

states that once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation (stimulus is strong enough to trigger an action potential), it will fire an action potential at full strength

polarization

the resting state of the neuron where the charge is more positive outside the membrane and more negative inside

resting potential

the stable, negative electrical charge that exists across the cell membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting signals (measure at polarization)

-maintained by the unequal distribution of ions, with more sodium ions outside the cell and more potassium ions inside

depolarization

phase of action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less negative compared to the outside due to the influx of positively charged ions, such as sodium ions, through ion channels in the cell membrane

-change in electrical charge triggers the neuron to fire an action potential, initiating the transmission of an electrical impulse along the axon

repolarization

the refractory period; the closing of the membrane and restablishing a more negative charge inside

refractory period

brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential

-neuron’s sodium channels are temporarily inactivated and the cell mebrane returns to its resting state

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord

-occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath, causing inflammation and damage

Myasthenia Gravis

chronic autoimmune disorder that affects the neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles

-occurs when the immune system produces antibodies that block or destroy the receptors for acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that stimulates muscle contraction

Parkinson’s disease

progressive brain disorder that damages movement control when nerve cells stop producing enough dopamine

-progressive breakdown and death of nerve cells in the brain in the substantia nigra (SN) area - leads to a drop in dopamine

Alzheimer’s disease

-Tangles of tau proteins/Neurofibliary tangles (NFTs)

- twisted proteins inside neurons

- Amyloid-Beta Accumulation (AB) - a waste material from synapses starts to clump between neurons

-results in…

- loss of memory, sense of self, and cognizance of relationships

-basic cognitive functions deteriorate

-Other symptoms include sleep loss, behavioral issues

Chemical Messengers

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons, allowing for communication within the nervous system

-released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to specific receptor sites on postsynaptic neurons, initiating or inhibiting a neural impulse

reuptake

process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released

agonist

chemical substance that binds to a receptor and activates it, triggering a biological response (mimicking or enhancing a natural signal)

antagonist

chemical substance that binds to a receptor and blocks it, preventing other molecules (like natural neurotransmitters) from activating it

excitatory neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

-bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane, causing depolarization and making the neuron more likely to fire an action potential

glutamate

the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, playing a key role in synaptic transmission and neural communication

-involved in various brain functions, including learning, memory, and neural impulse

long-term potentiation (LTP)

the long-lasting strengthening of a synapse: an increase in the nerve cell’s firing potential after a brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

synaptic plasticity

the ability of synapses (the connection between neurons) to change the strength of their communication over time, relying on chemical signals and receptors that control ion flow

inhibitory neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occuring in the postsynaptic neuron

GABA

a neurotransmitter that acts as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, promotes relaxation and reduces anxiety

dopamine

neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, reward, motivation, and movement

-reward system key: reward/drive

serotonin

neurotransmitter that plays a vital role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and stress

-mental health: satisfaction/emotional well-being (content)

endorphins

neurotransmitters produced by the brain and central nervous system that act as natural pain relievers and mood enhancers

-released in response to stress, pain, or intense physical activity like exercise or excitement

substance P

neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals in the nervous system

-binds to specific receptors on nerve cells in the spinal cord and brain where it amplifies pain signals and contributes to the perception of pain

acetylcholine

neurotransmitter that plays a fundamental role in both the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

-invloves various dunctions including muscle contraction, memory and learning

endocrine system

complex network of glands and organs that produce and release hormones

hormones

chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells or organs, where they regulate various physiological processes and behaviors

ghrelin

“hunger hormone” - increases before eating, decreases after eating

hormone produced primarily by the stomach and small intestine that stimulates appetite and promotes hunger

leptin

hormone produced primarily by fat cells that regulates energy balance and appetite

-acts on the hypothalamus in the brain to suppress appetite and increase energy expenditure

melatonin

hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms in the body

-maintains the body’s internal clock, ensuring restful sleep

oxytocin

“love/bonding hormone”: forms emotional connectins, trust, and intimacy

hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in social bonding

adrenaline

hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the body’s stress response, often referred to as the “fight or flight” (stored in the adrenal gland, near the kidney)

-adrenaline levels surge during times of stress, fear, or excitement, helping the body adapt to challenging circumstances

norepinephrine

neurotransmitter that functions as a hormone and a neurotransmitter in the body’s “fight or flight” response, regulating arousal, attention, and stress (in the brain and sympathetic nervous system)

-plays role in increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness during times of stress or danger

Brain Structures and Functions

brainstem

the oldest and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life-sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles

-serves as a pathway for neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body

medulla

vital structure located at the base of the brainstem, regulating essential autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure

reticular activating system/formation

a network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a critical role in regulating arousal, attention, and consciousness

-filters sensory information and modulates overall brain activity, helping to maintain wakefullness and alertness

cerebellum

located at the back of the brain, below the cerebral hemisphere, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture (fine-tune motor movements and improve coordination)

limbic system

located beneath the cerebral cortex and is a set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, and motivation

-thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, basal ganglia, and cingulate gland

reward center

network of brain structures, primarily located in the limbic system, that processes pleasurable experiences and reinforces behaviors associated with them

thalamus

a relay station in the brain that processes and relays sensory information, such as sight, sound, touch, and taste, to the cerebral cortex

hypothalamus

small but powerful strcuture located below the thalamus, responsible for regulating various essential bodily functions, including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle

-control center for homeostasis

hippocampus

curved structure located within the brain’s temporal lobes, primarily responsible for forming and consolidating new memories

amygdala

small, almond-shaped structure located deep within the brain’s temporal lobes, involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression

-fight or flight

pituitary gland

small pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain, often referred to as the “master gland” due to its central role in regulating hormone production and secretion throughout the body

-hormonal activity and homeostasis

cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, including thinking, perceiving, and decision-making

-highly folded to increase surface area; complex neural processing and integration of information

-grey matter and white matter

grey matter

where the brain “thinking” happens, containing the cell bodies of neurons

“processer”

white matter

acts as the brain’s wiring, consisting of myelinated axons that help transmit signals between different brain regions

“cables/connectors of the processor”

lobes of the brain

The lobes of the brain refer to the four main regions or sections into which the cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain, is divided

association areas

they're parts of the brain that take information from all over the place—like what we see, hear, smell, and touch—and put it together to help us understand the world around us.

frontal lobes

located at the front of the brain and are involved in higher-level cognitive functions like decision making, planning, problem solving, and personality expression

-prefrontal cortex and motor cortex

prefrontal cortex

a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions and executive functioning

executive functioning

a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus attention, regulate emotions, and manage time effectively

motor cortex

region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for planning, executing, and controlling voluntary movements of the body

-sends signals to the muscles, enabling us to perform actions such as walking, talking, and grasping objects

parietal lobes

located at the top of the brain and are primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness

-somatosensory cortex

somatosensory cortex

region of the brain located in the parietal lobe, responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, and joints

-interprets touch, pressure, temperature, and pain signals from different parts of the body, allowing us to perceive and respond to sensory stimuli

occipital lobes

located at the back of the brain and is primarily responsible for processing visual information received from the eyes

-primary visual cortex, which interprets visual stimuli and helps us perceive shapes, colors, and motion

temporal lobes

located on the sides of the brain and are involved in processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory formation

-contain the auditory cortex, which interprets sound signals from the ears

corpus callous

thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication and information sharing between the two hemispheres

Brain Plasticity and Specialization

(neuro)plasticity

refers to the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental changes

split brain research

studies individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure called corpus callosotomy, which disconnects the two hemispheres of the brain.