Psychology 2e — Chapters 7, 9 & 12 Study Guide Flashcards

Comprehensive practice flashcards for College Psychology 2e covering Chapter 7 (Thinking and Intelligence), Chapter 9 (Lifespan Development), and Chapter 12 (Social Psychology).

Cognition

The mental activities involved in thinking, learning, remembering, reasoning, and making decisions.

Concept

A mental category grouping similar objects, experiences, or ideas.

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a concept, such as a robin representing a bird.

Schema

A mental framework used to organize and interpret knowledge.

Role Schema

A set of expectations about how an individual in a specific role should behave, such as a teacher.

Event Schema (Script)

An expected sequence of events and behaviors in a familiar situation, such as ordering and paying at a restaurant.

Natural Concept

A mental category developed directly through personal, real-world experiences.

Artificial Concept

A mental category defined by a specific, strict set of rules or characteristics, such as a square having four equal sides.

Language

A communication system that uses words and systematic rules to express meaning.

Phoneme

The smallest basic unit of sound in a given language, such as /b/ in 'bat'.

Morpheme

The smallest unit of language that carries meaning, such as the prefix 'un-' or suffix '-ed'.

Semantics

The set of rules by which meaning is derived from words, morphemes, and sentences.

Syntax

The rules governing how words are organized and arranged into phrases and sentences.

Grammar

The overall system of rules governing language, ensuring correct word order and structural coherence.

Lexicon

The complete vocabulary of a language, representing all the words a person knows.

Babbling Stage

The first developmental stage of language where infants repeat various speech sounds without meaning.

One-Word Stage

The stage of language acquisition where toddlers use single isolated words to communicate meanings.

Two-Word Stage

The language acquisition stage where children begin combining words into simple two-word statements.

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech in which sentences are short and concise, containing primarily essential content words.

Complex Language Stage

The advanced developmental phase of language marked by increasing grammatical accuracy and full sentences.

Overgeneralization

The misapplication of a standard grammar rule to an irregular exception, such as saying 'goed' instead of 'went'.

Problem Solving

The cognitive process of identifying an obstacle or problem and finding an effective way to overcome it.

Algorithm

A step-by-step problem-solving formula or procedure that guarantees a correct solution when followed properly.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule-of-thumb strategy that speeds up decision making but can lead to errors.

Trial and Error

A problem-solving strategy that involves testing various possible solutions until one succeeds.

Insight

A sudden, unexpected realization of a problem's solution without explicit conscious steps.

Functional Fixedness

A cognitive barrier where one cannot perceive an object being used for anything other than its intended purpose.

Mental Set

The tendency to persistently approach a problem with an old strategy that worked previously, even when ineffective.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out and focus on information that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Anchoring Bias

A cognitive bias characterized by relying too heavily on the initial piece of information encountered.

Hindsight Bias

The false belief, after an event has occurred, that one could have predicted or already knew the outcome.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind, such as fearing plane crashes after news reports.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the probability of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype or stereotype in one's mind.

Intelligence

The global capacity to think rationally, learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt effectively to the environment.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to reason quickly, think abstractly, recognize patterns, and solve unfamiliar problems; typically declines with age.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge, vocabulary, and factual information gained through education and experience; tends to remain stable or increase with age.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg's model proposing that intelligence is composed of three distinct types: analytical, creative, and practical.

Analytical Intelligence

Sternberg's concept of academic problem-solving, abstract thinking, and evaluating information ('book smarts').

Creative Intelligence

Sternberg's dimension of intelligence involving the ability to innovate, invent, and handle novel situations.

Practical Intelligence

Sternberg's dimension of intelligence centered on adapting to everyday demands and finding street-smart solutions.

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Howard Gardner's proposal that human intelligence encompasses at least eight distinct, autonomous modalities of ability.

Linguistic Intelligence

Gardner's intelligence domain characterized by sensitivity to spoken and written language and word usage.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Gardner's intelligence domain involving capacity for scientific reasoning, mathematical computation, and logic.

Spatial Intelligence

Gardner's intelligence domain involving the mental manipulation, visualization, and navigation of objects and space.

Musical Intelligence

Gardner's intelligence domain encompassing proficiency in recognizing, creating, and appreciating rhythm, pitch, and timbre.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Gardner's intelligence domain involving physical body control, fine motor coordination, and athletic performance.

Interpersonal Intelligence

Gardner's intelligence domain centered on understanding, relating to, and interacting effectively with other people.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Gardner's intelligence domain centered on self-awareness, introspection, and understanding one's own inner emotions and motivations.

Naturalistic Intelligence

Gardner's intelligence domain involving identifying, categorizing, and understanding features and patterns of the natural environment.

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to accurately perceive, understand, manage, and utilize emotions in oneself and others.

Divergent Thinking

A form of creative thinking that generates multiple diverse, innovative ideas and possible solutions to a single problem.

Convergent Thinking

A conventional problem-solving mode aimed at narrowing down options to locate a single correct or established answer.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A numerical score derived from a standardized assessment designed to quantify human cognitive ability.

Standardization

The uniform administration, scoring, and interpretation procedures established for an assessment test.

Norming

The process of administering a test to a large representative sample to establish baseline comparison scores.

Reliability

The property of an assessment tool demonstrating consistency and repeatability of test scores over time.

Validity

The extent to which an assessment tool accurately measures or predicts the specific trait it claims to evaluate.

Flynn Effect

The observed historical trend of sustained increases in standardized intelligence test scores across successive generations.

Intellectual Disability

A developmental condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior.

Giftedness

High cognitive potential or intellectual ability, commonly defined by standardized IQ scores exceeding 130.

Mean Modern IQ Score

The defined standardized population average on modern intelligence scales, set at 100.

Standard Deviation of IQ

The typical measure of statistical dispersion on modern standardized IQ scales, commonly set at 15 points.

Range of Reaction

The principle asserting that genetics sets upper and lower limits on potential traits, while the environment determines where one falls within that boundary.

Lifespan Development

The scientific study of human physical, cognitive, and psychosocial change from conception until death.

Physical Domain

Developmental area covering biological growth, bodily changes, brain development, motor skills, and sensory decline with aging.

Cognitive Domain

Developmental area examining learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity throughout the lifespan.

Psychosocial Domain

Developmental area focusing on emotional development, personality formation, self-identity, and interpersonal relationships.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

The enduring dispute over the relative contributions of genetic endowment (nature) versus environmental experience (nurture) in shaping development.

Continuous Development

The view that developmental changes occur steadily, smoothly, and incrementally over time.

Discontinuous Development

The view that human development proceeds through distinct, qualitatively unique stages at specific periods of life.

Normative Approach

The research approach that establishes standard average ages and developmental milestones for population comparison.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's initial cognitive stage (birth to 2 years) where infants construct knowledge by exploring their senses and motor interactions.

Object Permanence

The cognitive understanding that an object or person continues to exist even when it is hidden or out of immediate sight.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second cognitive stage (ages 2 to 7) marked by symbolic play and language emergence, yet characterized by intuitive rather than logical thinking.

Egocentrism

The preoperational child's cognitive difficulty in perceiving a situation or physical space from another individual's point of view.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's third cognitive stage (ages 7 to 11) where children gain the ability to think logically about tangible, concrete objects and events.

Conservation

The cognitive principle that the quantity of a substance remains constant despite superficial changes in its shape or visual appearance.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's final cognitive stage (ages 11 and up) characterized by abstract thinking, systematic scientific deduction, and hypothetical reasoning.

Assimilation

The cognitive process of integrating new information and experiences into pre-existing mental schemas.

Accommodation

The cognitive process of modifying or creating new schemas in response to new information that does not fit current frameworks.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first psychosocial stage (birth to 1 year) centered on whether basic physical needs and emotional security are dependably met by caregivers.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's second psychosocial stage (ages 1 to 3 years) focused on toddler independence, personal control, and self-assertion.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson's third psychosocial stage (ages 3 to 6 years) where preschoolers learn to plan activities, initiate social interaction, and assert control over tasks.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial stage (ages 6 to 12 years) focusing on school-age competence, task mastery, and pride in achievements.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Erikson's fifth psychosocial stage (ages 12 to 18 years) in which adolescents explore personal roles, beliefs, and values to establish a coherent self-concept.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson's sixth psychosocial stage (young adulthood) revolving around developing deep, mutually trusting, committed romantic and interpersonal relationships.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's seventh psychosocial stage (middle adulthood) involving contributing to future generations, society, or work versus experiencing personal self-absorption.

Integrity vs. Despair

Erikson's eighth psychosocial stage (late adulthood) characterized by evaluating one's life retrospectively with either satisfaction or regret.

Preconventional Morality

Kohlberg's lowest level of moral reasoning, in which moral judgments are governed by immediate consequences, reward seeking, and punishment avoidance.

Conventional Morality

Kohlberg's intermediate moral reasoning level, where moral behavior is dictated by adherence to social conventions, laws, and the maintenance of societal order.

Postconventional Morality

Kohlberg's highest moral development level, based on universal ethical principles, human rights, and abstract justice beyond existing legal codes.

Germinal Stage

The initial two-week prenatal phase spanning from fertilization and rapid cell division to successful implantation in the uterine wall.

Embryonic Stage

The prenatal period spanning weeks 3 through 8 marked by rapid cell differentiation and the formation of major bodily organs and physiological systems.

Fetal Stage

The final prenatal period extending from week 9 until birth, characterized by significant structural growth, organ maturation, and brain specialization.

Teratogen

Any external environmental agent, such as a chemical, viral infection, alcohol, or pharmaceutical drug, capable of harming an embryo or fetus.

Gross Motor Skills

Physical movement abilities involving large muscle groups of the body, such as rolling over, crawling, standing, walking, and running.

Fine Motor Skills

Coordination of small muscle movements, especially in the hands and fingers, used for grasping objects, writing, and buttoning shirts.

Attachment

The deep, enduring emotional bond formed between an infant and their primary caregiver.

Strange Situation

Mary Ainsworth's standardized observational research procedure used to assess attachment styles based on infant behavior during caregiver separation and reunion.

Secure Attachment

An attachment pattern in which a child explores comfortably using the caregiver as a secure base, expresses distress upon separation, and is easily soothed upon reunion.