Exam #2 gph

Unsafe abortion

Termination of pregnancy without proper medical care.

People who had health insurance in 2022

92.1%

People who had health insurance in 2021

91.7%

____ and ____ working-age adults were

less likely to have healthcare coverage than

White/Non-Hispanic or Asian adults in 2022

Hispanic and Black

Nearly 25% of adults reported that either they

or a member in their household has

skipped doses of medicine, cut pills in half or not

filled a prescription in the last year due to

cost.

Private vs. public health insurance prevalence in 2022

65.6% of insured adults had a private healthcare plan compared to 36.1% having a public healthcare plan.

Employment-based health insurance coverage

Covered 54.5% of the American population, making it the most common subtype.

Medicaid and Medicare coverage in 2022

Covered 18.8% and 18.7% of the population, respectively.

Direct-purchase healthcare (such as ACA plans)

Covered 9.9% of the population.

Uninsured rate in 2022

8.0% of the U.S. population lacked health insurance coverage.

Children's health insurance coverage (2022)

5.4% of children under 19 lacked health insurance coverage.

Health care cost burden

High out-of-pocket costs lead many Americans to delay or skip necessary medical care.

Preventive services mandate

The ACA requires private insurance plans to cover recommended preventive services with no co-pay.

Employer-sponsored stability

Employment-based coverage remained the most prevalent source of health insurance in the United States.

U.S. health care spending (2023)

Approximately $4.9 trillion per year.

U.S. health care spending relative to GDP

17.6% of the gross domestic product (GDP).

U.S. per capita health care spending

$14,570 per person per year.

International comparison of health care spending

Countries like Canada, the UK, France, and Japan spend about half as much per person and 10% or less of their GDP.

Medical debt in the US (KFF, 2022)

100 million people went into debt due to medical or dental bills in the past five years; a quarter owe over $5,000, and 1 in 5 do not expect to ever pay it off.

Medical bills and bankruptcy

Medical bills are the largest reason for declaring bankruptcy in the US.

Challenges of the US healthcare system

It is confusing, doesn't cover all citizens, is expensive, has uncertain coverage, and has excessive administrative costs.

Administrative costs in healthcare

Costs incurred by health plans, hospitals, providers, and other entities to conduct the business side of health care, including billing, enrollment, marketing, and member relations.

Primary types of health insurance

Government-financed, employment-based, and health insurance exchanges.

Medicare

A federal government program primarily funded by payroll tax that provides coverage for persons 65 and older, eligible disabled persons, and those with end-stage renal disease.

Medicaid

A federal and state assistance program that pays for health care services for people who cannot afford them. (disabled, children, pregnant women, etc)

Current level for a family of four is approximately

$25,000/year

Medicaid coverage and challenges

Coverage is comprehensive with federal matching funds, but reimbursement rates to clinicians are often comparatively low, causing many clinicians to not participate.

Health insurance exchanges

A competitive marketplace providing a mechanism to obtain insurance and help increase access and control costs for those not otherwise eligible.

The Affordable Care Act (Obamacare)

Offers website-based plans split into metal tiers (Platinum, Gold, Silver, Bronze) with costs based on income, age, and other factors; removes pre-existing conditions; and allows dependents to remain on a plan until age 26.

War and Public Health

War severely impacts mental health, water, sanitation, and healthcare access, as seen in conflicts like Gaza.

Amnesty International

An influential non-governmental organization that operates globally to monitor and try to rectify glaring abuses of political (not economic or social) human rights.

United for Human Rights

Educate individuals, educators, and organizations about the 30 articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to make human rights a factual reality

United Nations

An international organization formed after WWII to promote international peace, security, and cooperation.

Doctors Without Borders

Doctors volunteer all over the world to help people with emergency medical aid from war, conflict, epidemics, disasters, and poverty.

The Carter Center

Created to assist in global conflict resolution, development, and the promotion of democracy

Georgia Equality

Advocating for the civil rights of LGBTQ+ Georgians and all those living with HIV since 1995

RESULTS

organization to end poverty

Stigmatized Groups and Health

Failure to respect human rights often harms health, particularly for stigmatized groups like those with HIV, Ebola, leprosy, and LGBTQ+ individuals.

Individual vs. Society Rights

Ethical dilemmas arise when balancing individual freedoms against society's need to protect public health, such as during vaccine mandates.

The International Bill of Human Rights

Composed of the UDHR (1948), ICCPR (civil/political rights), and ICESCR (economic/social/cultural rights).

Article 25 of the UDHR

Guarantees the right to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being, including food, clothing, housing, and medical care.

Human Rights Approach to Global Health

An approach that assesses health policies for human rights impacts, addresses rights violations, and prioritizes human rights fulfillment.

Limits to Human Rights

Human rights may be suspended during disease outbreaks, but suspensions must be as narrow as possible, monitored, and use due process.

The ICCPR

discusses rights of equality, liberty, and security, and freedom of movement, religion, expression, and association

What does the ICESCR focus on?

The well-being of individuals

What right does the ICESCR guarantee regarding work?

The right to work in safe conditions

What does the ICESCR ensure about wages?

The right to receive fair wages

What does the ICESCR state about hunger?

The right to be free from hunger

What educational right is included in the ICESCR?

The right to get an education

What health standard does the ICESCR promote?

The highest attainable standard of physical and mental health

Fundamental Human Rights Principles (WHO)

Non-discrimination and equality, participation, and accountability.

What does non-discrimination and equality prioritize?

The needs of those furthest behind to achieve equity.

How is equity used in public health?

As a framework to identify and address unfair and remediable health disparities among different sub-populations.

What does participation in health services require?

Empowering health service users, communities, and civil society.

At what levels should participation occur in health services?

At all levels of the system.

In what processes should health service users engage?

Planning, decision-making, and implementation processes for health.

Across what cycle should participation in health services be implemented?

Across the programme cycle.

What must countries establish for accountability?

Accessible and effective accountability mechanisms.

What types of remedies may be included in accountability mechanisms?

Administrative and judicial remedies.

What institutions can provide oversight for accountability?

National human rights institutions and health and social care regulators.

Which United Nations mechanism reviews countries' compliance with health-related human rights obligations?

The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

Core Components of the Right to Health

Availability, accessibility, acceptability, and quality of health facilities, goods, and services.

Availability

the need for a sufficient quantity of functioning health facilities, goods and services for all.

What must health facilities, goods, and services be?

Accessible to everyone

What are the four dimensions of accessibility?

Non-discrimination, physical accessibility, economic accessibility (affordability), and information accessibility

Assessing

analysis of physical, geographical, financial and other barriers to health systems and services, and how they may affect people who are marginalized

Acceptability

relates to respect for medical ethics, culturally appropriate, and sensitivity to gender.

Quality

extends to the underlying determinants of health, for example safe and potable water and sanitation as well as requiring that health facilities, goods, and services are scientifically and medically approved

What is a key component of universal health coverage (UHC)?

Quality

What does it mean for health services to be safe?

Avoiding injuries to people for whom the care is intended.

What does it mean for health services to be effective?

Providing evidence-based services to those who need them.

What does it mean for health services to be people-centered?

Providing care that responds to individual needs.

What does it mean for health services to be timely?

Reducing waiting times and harmful delays.

What does it mean for health services to be equitable?

Providing care that does not vary in quality based on age, gender, ethnicity, disability, geographic location, and socio-economic status.

What does it mean for health services to be integrated?

Providing a full range of health services throughout the life course.

What does it mean for health services to be efficient?

Maximizing the benefit of available resources and avoiding waste.

Quality Components in UHC

Health services must be safe, effective, people-centered, timely, equitable, integrated, and efficient.

Primary global women's health issues

Intimate partner violence, maternal mortality, STI and gynecological issues, and factors related to education access.

WHO definition of gender

Socially constructed characteristics, norms, behaviors, and roles of women, men, girls, and boys that vary by society and change over time.

Gender (WHO, 2025)

Gender influences people's experience of and access to healthcare

What is a barrier to healthcare for women and girls related to mobility?

Restrictions on mobility

What is a barrier to healthcare for women and girls related to decision-making?

Lack of access to decision-making power

What is a barrier to healthcare for women and girls related to education?

Lower literacy rates

What type of attitudes can be a barrier to healthcare for women and girls?

Discriminatory attitudes of communities and healthcare providers

What is a barrier to healthcare for women and girls related to healthcare providers' knowledge?

Lack of training and awareness amongst healthcare providers

What are the risks of unintended pregnancies faced by women and girls?

Unintended pregnancies

What sexually transmitted infections are women and girls at greater risk of?

Sexually transmitted infections including HIV

What type of cancer are women and girls at greater risk of?

Cervical cancer

What nutritional issue are women and girls at greater risk of?

Malnutrition

What vision issue are women and girls at greater risk of?

Lower vision

What respiratory issue are women and girls at greater risk of?

Respiratory infections

What type of abuse are older women at greater risk of?

Elder abuse

SDG #5 goal

Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

SDG 5.1

End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere.

SDG 5.2

Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation

SDG 5.3

Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation.

SDG 5.4

Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate.

SDG 5.5

Ensure women's full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life.

SDG 5.6

Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights.

SDG 5a

Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws