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What is the purpose of graphing behavioural data

To display behaviour over time and evaluate patterns of change across baseline, treatment, and other phases.

What are the six components of a behavioural line graph

The x-axis and y-axis, axis labels and units, axis numbers, data points and connecting lines, phase-change lines, and phase labels.

What does the x-axis usually represent on a behavioural graph

Time, such as days or observation sessions.

What does the y-axis represent on a behavioural graph

The measured dimension of the target behaviour, such as frequency, duration, or percentage.

Why should graph axes include units

Units identify how time and behaviour were measured and make the data interpretable.

What does a data point represent on a behavioural graph

The measured value of the target behaviour for a particular observation or time period.

What is a phase-change line

A vertical line separating phases when experimental conditions change, such as from baseline to treatment.

How should phases be identified on a behavioural graph

Use labels such as baseline, treatment, and follow-up placed above the relevant phases rather than a legend.

Should data points be connected across a phase-change line

No; connect points within a phase, but do not connect the baseline curve to the treatment curve.

How should raw recording data be prepared before graphing

Organize them into a data summary, such as a table of values for each observation period.

What graph formatting should be avoided according to the lecture notes

Avoid gridlines, titles, legends for phases, gray axes or units, and tilted x-axis labels.

How should different target behaviours or different measures of one behaviour be graphed according to the notes

Use separate graphs rather than combining them on one graph.

What identifying information should be included for multiple-baseline graphs

Identify the client, behaviour, or setting represented by each graph, with the identifying information in the lower-right corner.

What three features are examined in visual analysis of behavioural data

Level, trend, and variability.

What is the level of behavioural data

How high or low the data values are on the y-axis within a phase.

What is the trend of behavioural data

The direction of change across time within a phase, such as increasing, decreasing, or showing no systematic change.

What is variability in behavioural data

The amount of fluctuation or spread among data points within a phase.

How would successful treatment of a behavioural excess usually appear in terms of level

The treatment phase would show a lower level of the target behaviour than baseline.

How would successful treatment of a behavioural deficit usually appear in terms of level

The treatment phase would show a higher level of the target behaviour than baseline.

Why can a baseline trend complicate interpretation of treatment effects

Behaviour is already changing before treatment, making it harder to determine whether the intervention caused subsequent change.

How can high variability complicate visual analysis

Large fluctuations can obscure a clear pattern or make changes between phases harder to interpret.

What is the purpose of a research design in behaviour modification

To determine whether the treatment caused a change in the target behaviour.

What is the independent variable in behaviour modification research

The treatment or intervention manipulated by the researcher.

What is the dependent variable in behaviour modification research

The measured target behaviour.

What is a confounding or extraneous variable in the context of these notes

Another uncontrolled factor that may affect behaviour and provide an alternative explanation for the observed change.

How could parental attention confound an evaluation of scolding

Scolding also provides attention, so a behaviour change could be due to attention rather than the intended punishment effect.

What two criteria are required to demonstrate a functional relationship

Changing the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable, and the pattern is consistently replicated.

What does replication mean in a behavioural research design

Demonstrating a consistent pattern of behaviour change when the intervention or condition change is repeated.

Why is a change in behaviour following treatment not sufficient by itself to establish causation

Without replication and control, another variable could explain the change.

What research approach is typically used in behaviour modification

Single-subject research methods with repeated behavioural measurement and visual analysis rather than extensive statistical analysis.

What do A and B usually represent in a behavioural research design

A represents baseline and B represents treatment.

What is an A-B design

A design with one baseline phase followed by one treatment phase.

What baseline guideline is given for an A-B design

Collect at least three baseline data points that do not show a trend before beginning treatment.

What is the main practical advantage of an A-B design

It is straightforward and can be satisfactory for self-management and documenting behaviour change.

Why is an A-B design not a true experimental design according to the notes

It lacks replication, so it cannot establish that treatment caused the behaviour change.

What is an A-B-A-B or reversal design

A design with baseline, treatment, a return to baseline conditions, and reintroduction of treatment.

What remains the same across phases in a standard reversal design

The target behaviour, client, and setting.

What pattern in an A-B-A-B design supports a functional relationship

Behaviour changes when treatment begins, moves back toward baseline when treatment is withdrawn, and changes again when treatment returns.

Why can an A-B-A-B design establish cause and effect more convincingly than an A-B design

It replicates the treatment effect and tests whether behaviour changes systematically with treatment introduction and withdrawal.

What ethical problem can arise in a reversal design

Withdrawing a beneficial intervention may expose the client to harm or allow an undesirable behaviour to return.

What practical problem arises when behaviour does not reverse after treatment withdrawal

The second baseline does not reproduce the original pattern, weakening the design's ability to demonstrate experimental control.

Why might a reversal design be unsuitable for teaching a new tennis serve

A learned skill may persist after treatment is removed, so the behaviour may not return to its previous form.

How can a reversal-type design compare more than one treatment

Use separate treatment labels, such as B and C, in sequences such as A-B-A-C or A-B-C-A-C.

What is a multiple-baseline design

A design using several baseline-to-treatment comparisons with intervention introduced at different times across subjects, behaviours, or settings.

What does it mean to stagger treatment in a multiple-baseline design

Begin treatment at different times in the separate baselines rather than treating all of them simultaneously.

Why are treatment starts staggered in a multiple-baseline design

To test whether each target changes only when its own intervention begins while untreated targets remain at baseline.

What pattern supports causation in a multiple-baseline design

Each target remains near baseline until treatment starts for that target, then changes as the effect is replicated across baselines.

What is a multiple baseline across subjects

Applying the intervention at different times to several people, such as introducing a protective-glove intervention to different nurses.

What is a multiple baseline across behaviours

Applying intervention at different times to several target behaviours, such as different speech sounds for one client.

What is a multiple baseline across settings

Applying intervention at different times in several settings, such as treating one person's stuttering at home, work, and in public.

How do the three forms of multiple-baseline design differ

Across subjects varies the people; across behaviours varies the target behaviours; across settings varies the environments.

What is a major advantage of a multiple-baseline design over a reversal design

It can demonstrate an intervention effect without withdrawing treatment or requiring behaviour to reverse.

Why is a multiple-baseline design useful for behaviours that do not revert after treatment

Experimental control comes from staggered treatment introductions rather than returning behaviour to baseline.

What is a major limitation of a multiple-baseline design

Treatment effects may spread to untreated subjects, behaviours, or settings during their baseline phases.

Why does treatment spreading across baselines weaken causal conclusions

Untreated baselines change before their own intervention begins, disrupting the expected staggered pattern.

What is an alternating-treatments or multielement design

A design rapidly alternating baseline and treatment conditions or two treatment conditions to compare their effects.

How does an alternating-treatments design differ from a reversal design

Alternating treatments compares conditions in rapid succession, while reversal designs organize conditions into longer sequential phases.

What is counterbalancing in an alternating-treatments design

Varying factors such as time of day, therapist, or location across conditions so they do not systematically favour one treatment.

How could time of day be counterbalanced when comparing two treatments

Give each treatment in the morning on some occasions and in the afternoon on others.

What is fractionation in an alternating-treatments graph

Consistent vertical separation between the data curves for different conditions.

How does fractionation provide evidence for different treatment effects

One condition repeatedly produces different behaviour levels from the other condition during the alternating comparison.

What are two advantages of an alternating-treatments design

It directly compares treatments and reduces the influence of some extraneous variables through rapid alternation and counterbalancing.

What is a major limitation of an alternating-treatments design

Treatments may interact, with exposure to one condition affecting behaviour in another condition.

What is a changing-criterion design

A design in which the performance criterion changes progressively during treatment and behaviour is assessed against each new criterion.

How does a changing-criterion design build on an A-B design

It begins with baseline and then divides treatment into steps with different behavioural goals or criteria.

What pattern supports a functional relationship in a changing-criterion design

Behaviour changes to match each successive criterion when that criterion is introduced.

What does it mean for a criterion to become more stringent

The required performance becomes more demanding, such as requiring more exercise or a lower level of an undesirable behaviour.

What is the main advantage of a changing-criterion design

It suits behaviours that can be changed gradually through successive performance goals.

What is the main limitation of a changing-criterion design

It is unsuitable for behaviours that cannot change gradually or do not follow the staged criteria.

What example of a changing-criterion design is given in the notes

Progressively changing the required pedalling rate on a stationary exercise bicycle.

Which design is appropriate for a simple baseline-to-treatment comparison without replication

An A-B design.

Which design repeatedly withdraws and reintroduces treatment for the same client, behaviour, and setting

An A-B-A-B reversal design.

Which design is appropriate when treatment should remain in place and effects can be tested across separate targets

A multiple-baseline design.

Which design is appropriate for rapidly comparing two interventions

An alternating-treatments design.

Which design is appropriate when a behavioural goal can be raised or lowered in gradual steps

A changing-criterion design.

How do reversal, multiple-baseline, alternating-treatments, and changing-criterion designs demonstrate replication

Reversal repeats treatment effects across phases; multiple baseline repeats effects across staggered targets; alternating treatments repeatedly compares conditions; changing criterion repeats behaviour changes across criterion shifts.