psych 1000

social psychologists

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behaviour by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

role

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent (changing attitudes to reflect behaviour)

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by attention-getting cues, such as a person’s attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

norms

understood rules for accepted and expected behaviour

conformity

adjusting our behaviour or thinking to coincide with a group standard

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members based on stereotypes

stereotypes

generalized beliefs about a group of people

discriminate

unjustifiable negative behaviour toward a group or its members

implicit bias

automatic associations that can influence individual judgements of or behaviour toward people of a certain group

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

ingroup

people with whom we share a common identity (us)

outgroup

those perceived as different or apart from out group (them)

ingroup bias

the tendency to favour our own group

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one’s race more accurately than faces of other races

aggression

any physical or verbal behaviour intended to cause harm to others

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration causes anger, which can generate aggression

social scripts

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

mere-exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for someone with whom our life is intertwined

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

diffusion of responsibility

when a person takes less responsibility for something, or is less likely to act in a situation, due to the presence of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behaviour is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize cost

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

social traps

a situation in which two parties, each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behaviour

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

self-fulfilling prophecies

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

personality

our characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious mind and the importance of childhood experiences

psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

unconscious

mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories (Freud) or information processing of which we are unaware (Modern)

free association

a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

id

according to Freud, unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. Operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

ego

 the partly conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality

superego

the partly conscious part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement and for future aspirations

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development during which the id’s pleasure seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desire toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

identification

the process by which children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos

fixate

a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

defense mechanisms

the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

repression

the basic defence mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

collective unconscious

a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history

terror-management theory

 a theory of death-related anxiety, explores people’s emotional and behavioural responses to reminders of their impending death

thematic apperception test

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

projective test

a personality test that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of people’s inner dynamics

inkblot test

seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots

humanistic theorists

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s five levels of human needs

self-actualization

one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved

self-transcendence

the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, and non judgemental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question “Who am I?”

traits

a characteristic pattern of behaviour or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways

personality inventories

a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviours, used to assess selected personality traits

self-report

a method of recording participants’ descriptions of their personality traits, often using surveys, questionnaires, or tests

empirically derived

a test created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups

big five factors

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism

social-cognitive perspective

 a view of behaviour as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits and their social context

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behaviour, internal cognition, and environment

spotlight effect

overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders

self-esteem

our feelings of high or low self worth

self-efficiency

 our sense of competence on a task

self-serving bias

a readiness to protect ourselves favourably

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-focus

psychological disorder

a disturbance in people’s thoughts, emotions, or behaviours that causes distress or suffering and impacts their daily lives

medical model

the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and in most cases, cured

epigenetics

 the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression

DSM-5-TR

the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders

anxiety disorders

a group of disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety related maladaptive behaviours

social anxiety disorder

intense fear and avoidance of social situations

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations

specific phobias

an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation

OCD

a disorder characterized by unwanted and repetitive thoughts, actions, or both

posttraumatic stress disorder

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, hypervigilance, avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for 4 weeks or more after a traumatic experience

trauma-and-stressor-related disorders

a group of disorders in which exposure to a traumatic or stressful event is followed by psychological distress

somatic symptom disorder

a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause

illness anxiety disorder

a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease

major depressive disorder

a disorder in which a person experiences five or more symptoms lasting 2 or more weeks