Agriculture

Food Production

In the past 30 years food production has increased faster than the human population.

• 61% increase in food production • 45% increase in population

Neolithic Revolution

12,00 years ago, introduced agriculture and animal husbandry.

Agriculture

The practice of preparing soil, irrigation, and planting and harvesting crops.

Animal Husbandry

The practice of breeding, rearing, and caring for domesticated livestock

What did food production led to?

The formation of human civilizations.

• Most food crops and animals were established in the first 1,000 years of the neolithic revolution.

Subsistence farmers

People who live on small parcels of land that produce household food and some cash crops.

Subsistence farming is...

• Labor intensive

• Neutral to global food production

• Marginally productive land

• Still common in developing countries

• Feeds about 2 billion people

Subsistence Farming Problems

• Live on the edge

• Limited by:

• Size of usable land plots

• Availability of crops or animals

• Usable tools

• Climate - Annual Rainfall

• Pests

• Financial Vulnerability

Industrialized Agriculture

The industrial revolution of the 1800's saw new farming machinery introduced that changed farming.

Industrialized Agriculture allowed for...

• Fewer people needed for more land yields

• Increased non-agricultural workforce

• Greater focus on education and invention

Industrialized Agriculture Machinery

• Tilling

• Seeding

• Irrigation

• Weeding

• Harvesting

Industrialized Agriculture Infrastructure

• Farm to Market Roads

• Electricity

• Irrigation Plumbing

• University Agriculture programs

• Farming Credit Unions

• Insurance

Green Revolution

Agricultural University studies and introduction of industrialized equipment to the developing world.

Green Revolution allowed for...

• Agricultural Yields growth

• Global food trade was introduced

Industrialized Livestock

Livestock has also gone from subsistence to industrialized farming.

Industrialized Livestock allowed for...

• Ranches to Concentrated Herds

• Machinery for feeding, watering, and harvesting

• Increased academic understanding of genetics

This growth has come at a cost.

High Yield Crops

• Academic research identified crops that would yield larger or more robust harvests

• Introduction to non-native lands required chemical intervention

• Encouraged monocultural practices

Example of High Yield Crops

Mexican Wheat in 1960's

Monoculture

An agricultural plot used for production of a single crop.

What does Monoculture do?

• Increases pest populations

• Increases disease evolution

• Reduces Genetic Diversity

Example of monoculture

Cavendish Bananas

Genetic Diversity

Different plants and animals have different genetics that were adapted to their locale, called heritage or heirloom breeds.

Genetic diversity can lead to..

• Extinction of locally sustainable varieties

• Once diversity is lost, adaptions to changes become limited.

Example of genetic diversity

190 breeds of farm animals have gone extinct in the last 15 years.

Antibiotics

80% of all antibiotics in the united states are used for animal husbandry.

Antibiotics are...

• Less illness in livestock

• More rapid evolution of resistant bacteria

• Increased varieties that can infect humans

Example of antibiotics

Chicken eggs injected with antibiotics developed resistant salmonella.

The Gene Revolution

Genetic engineering has made it possible to select preferable characteristics from multiple breeds of crops, called genetically modified organisms (GMO's).

The Gene Revolution brought what?

• Pest resistance

• Drought resistance

• Chemical resistance

Promises of genetic modification:

Crops for Developing Countries:

• Greater Yields

• Tolerant to a variety of conditions

• Improved Nutrition

Pharma Crops:

• Crops with additional health benefits

• Usable for humans or livestock

Example of genetic modification

Corn modified with natural antibiotics for pigs in Iowa.

Problems of genetic modification: Food safety

Unknown sources of genetic modifications.

• Soybeans modified with Brazil-nuts trigger nut allergy responses.

Problems of genetic modification: Environment

• Resistant pests

• Superweeds

• Biodiversity loss

Problems of genetic modification: Justice

• Most GM crops are developed with a profit motive

• Developing country affordability does not align with a for-profit structure.

• Wealthier countries dominate global trade of products.

Problems of genetic modification: Controversy

"Frankenfoods" have mixed reactions from protestors and activists

• Some EU countries have banned GM crops

• US is more accepting of GM crops

• Profit motivation has eliminated 67% of all subsistence farms in the US.

Genetic modification 1940s

Generation of plant variants via physical/chemical mutagenesis (variation breeding)

• Pre-green revolution era

Genetic modification 1950s

Production of high-yielding crop plants via hybridization techniques, modern irrigation system and the use of pesticide and synthetic fertilizer.

• Green revolution era

Genetic modification 1990s

Introduction of genetically modified (GM) crops via genetic engineering.

Genetic modification 2000s

Discovery of nucleotide editing via SSN-based tools

• Gene revolution era

Genetic modification 2010s

Production and commercialization of transgene-free crops.

Pest

Any organism that interferes with another organism's endeavors.

Examples of pests

• Insects

• Weeds

• Molds

• Animals

• Pathogens

Pests are not...

A scientific category, and a pest for humans is not a pest for other organisms.

Bedbug Outbreak (2010)

5 states declared a national emergency

• Ohio petitioned EPA to use chemicals harmful to children

• Other states requested military grade pest control from

DoD CDC research identified the new bedbug breed to be immune to traditional foggers.

• 2 years later diatomaceous earth and a vacuum cleaner were determined to be the best solution

Agricultural pests

Organisms that feed on agricultural crops.

Weeds

Plants that compete with agricultural crops for light and nutrients, or poison livestock.

Canada Thistle pros

Pros:

• Strong pollinator

• Dense animal shelter

Canada Thistle cons

Cons:

• Invasive

• Allergenic

• Unpalatable

• Unappealing

Soybean Rust (2004)

Caused by fungal pathogens in the genus Phakopsora.

• Can spread rapidly under favorable environmental conditions.

• Premature defoliation

• Reduced yields

• Increased production costs for farmers.

Veterinary pests

Organisms that affect livestock animals.

Examples of Veterinary pests

• Screwworm Fly

• Fleas

• Ticks

• Mites

• Mosquitos

Pros of Veterinary pests

• Massive food source

• Pollinators

• Aquatic nutrient cycling

Cons of Veterinary pests

• Transmit diseases

• Rapid evolution?

Screwworm Fly (2026)

• A fly that lays its eggs in open wounds and body openings such as the eyes, ears, nose, or mouth.

• Eggs hatch into parasitic maggots that burrow into and feed on living tissue or flesh.

Forest pests

Destroy living trees and wood products.

Examples of Forest pests

• Pine Beetle

• Woolly Adelgid

• Spongy Moth

Pros of Forest pests

• Food Source

• Minimal Harm

• Self Population Control

Cons of forests pests

• Aesthetic Damage

Emerald Ash Borer (2002 to present)

An invasive wood-boring beetle from Asia, is responsible for the death and decline of tens of millions of ash trees in North America.

Medical Pest

Organisms that disrupt human health

Stored-Product Pest

Organisms that destroy stored and processed foods

Biofouling Pest

Organisms that disrupt aquatic environments

Pesticides

Chemicals that kill animals and insects thought to be pests

Herbicides

Chemicals that kill plants thought to be pests

In 2007 the EPA estimated...

• ~1.2 billion pounds of pest control chemicals were used at a cost of $12.5 Billion in the US.

• ~5.9 billion pounds of pest control chemicals were used at a cost of $39 Billion in the world.

Chemical Treatment

1 way of controlling pest outbreaks.

• More Effective

• Creates dependency

• Risks resistant mutations

Alternative Treatment

2nd way of controlling pest outbreaks.

• Ecological

• Long-lasting sustainability

• Less effective

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

The combined approach for controlling pests with both chemical and alternative treatments.

Insecticides

Kill insects

Rodenticides

Kills rodents

Fungicides

Kills fungi

Herbicides kill..

Kills plants

Most pesticides can not...

Target a specific organism and often have unintended consequences to other organisms

First-Gen Pesticides

Introduced toxic heavy metals to the environment

• Lead

• Arsenic

• Mercury

These heavy metals would...

Would accumulate in the soil, harming future crops.

• Insects built resistances

Second-Gen Treatment 1938

Paul Muller discovers trace amounts of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane(DDT) killed flies in his laboratory.

Second-Gen Treatment is...

• Inexpensive

• Toxic to insects

• Nontoxic to humans

• DDT doesn't breakdown in nature, making it persistent treatment.

DDT was so effective that...

It was used in WWII to kill body lice.

• First war with fewer people dying from wounds than typhus

• Paul Muller is awarded Nobel Peace Prize for DDT discovery

DDT expanded to..

• Mosquitos

• Dutch Elm Beetles

• Budworms

Nearly all crop insect pests were controlled by DDT leading to a boon in crop harvest yields.

DDT was...

Banned by the US in 1972, and currently only used for malaria control worldwide.

DDT causes

• Probable Carcinogen

• Reproductive interference

• Massive ecologic declines

The Consequences

Long term use of chemical pesticides leached chemicals into water systems.

Glyphosate

A broad-spectrum herbicide.

• Most state and local governments banned glyphosate use

• 2026 executive order has declared glyphosate as critical to national security, overriding these decisions

Glyphosate causes...

• Nausea

• Pain

• Respiratory Failure

• Possible Carcinogen

Dibromochloropropane (DBCP)

Banned in the US in 1979, but still detected in groundwater today.

Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) causes...

• Brain Damage

• Nerve Damage

• Male sterility

• Birth Defects

Ecological controls

Seek to manipulate natural factors so that crops are protected without jeopardizing the environment.

Ecological control is

The natural life cycle of all living organisms introduces vulnerabilities.

• These provide opportunities for disruptions that may have lower impacts on ecosystems

Types of Ecologic Control

• Cultural Control

• Natural Enemies

• Genetic Control

• Natural Chemical Control

Cultural Controls

A non-chemical alteration of the environment that makes the environment unsuitable for pests.

Cultural controls is...

Labor and knowledge intensive, often requiring very specific timing and long-term plans.

Examples of cultural controls

• Crop Rotations

• Planting Design

• Trap Crops

• Soil Management

Natural Enemies

Managing populations of pests by introducing natural enemies of the pests.

The challenge in natural enemies is...

Finding one that disrupts the pests without disrupting the remaining environment.

Examples of Natural Enemies

• Predators

• Parasitoids

• Pathogens

Genetic Controls

Most pests are specific in their targets, indicating a genetic connectivity between them.

Genetic controls often lead to...

Monocultures and rapid evolution of resistant pests

Examples of Genetic Controls

• Biotechnology

• Reproductive Interference

• Natural Mutation

Natural Chemicals

Native chemical compounds used in increased concentrations to alter pest behaviors and survivability.

These natural chemicals usually...

Degrade quickly and require active uses.