psychology

what are ethics?

A set of values based on integrity, justice and respect.

Psychologists must carry out research in an ethical and responsible manner.

why are ethics important?

Ensures participants have rights and are not psychologically or physiologically harmed.

what are three (3) key ethical principles?

• informed consent

• protection from harm

• deception

what does informed consent mean (ethical principle)?

Participants must be told what the study involves and agree to take part voluntarily, before it begins.

what does protection from harm mean (ethical principle)?

Participants must not be placed at risk of physical or psychological harm greater than they would face in everyday life.

what does deception mean (ethical principle)?

Misleading participants should be avoided where possible, and only used if it is necessary and justified.

what is the nervous system?

A system of networks of specialised cells (neurons) that connect different parts of the body to each other and the brain via electrochemical signals.

types of nervous systems diagram

what is the central nervous system?

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Brain: provides conscious awareness and is involved in all psychological processes

Spinal cord: transfers messages to and from the brain, and the rest of the body; responsible for simple reflex actions that do not involve the brain

what is the peripheral nervous system?

Communication pathway that goes back and forth between the brain and the extremities.

what is the autonomic nervous system?

System of nerves connected to heart, glands and smooth muscles, deals with largely involuntary systems.

what is the sympathetic nervous system?

manages the body in times of stress (fight-or-flight)

what is the parasympathetic nervous system?

maintains normal bodily functions (rest-and-digest)

what is the somatic nervous system?

system of nerves communicating information from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to motor muscles.

what are hemispheres in the brain?

• The cerebrum can be separated into two main hemispheres: left and right.

• They are joined by a branch of fibres known as the corpus callosum.

what is the left hemisphere for?

• language based tasks (speaking, reading, writing)

• analytical thinking

• logical reasoning

what is the right hemisphere for?

• visual-spatial tasks (reading a map, completing a jigsaw puzzle)

• appreciation of art and music

• recognition of faces and patterns

regions of the brain diagram

function of forebrain

• control of voluntary movement

• higher mental functions

• hormone production

key structures of forebrain

• hypothalamus

• thalamus

• hippocampus

• cortex

hypothalamus

regulates the release of hormones

thalamus

filters information from all senses except smell and acts as a relay system

hippocampus

associated with memory

cortex

outermost layer of brain cells where thinking and voluntary movements begin

function of midbrain

acts as a sensory switchboard, receives and processes sensory information.

function of hindbrain

controls the body’s vital functions such as respiration and heart rate

key structures of hindbrain

• cerebellum

• brain stem

cerebellum

located at the base and the back of the brain, responsible for coordination and balance

brain stem

found between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain, controls basic functions like breathing and sleep

lobes of the brain diagram

function of frontal lobe

controls voluntary movement, abstract thinking, regulation of emotional behaviour and personality.

key structures of frontal lobe

• motor area

• broca’s area

motor area

responsible for voluntary movement

broca’s area

located in the left hemisphere, responsible for the production of speech and language comprehension

damage of frontal lobe

• difficulty concentrating

• difficulty expressing and regulating emotions

• difficulty controlling facial expressions

function of parietal lobe

integrates sensory information relating to touch, temperature, position in space and muscle movement

key structures of parietal lobe

• sensory area

sensory area

receives information about temperature, touch, taste and movement

damage of parietal lobe

unable to feel changes in sensations and difficulty with spatial awareness

function of occipital lobe

receives and processes visual information such as colour, shape and motion

damage of occipital lobe

loss of vision

function of temporal lobe

involved with memory and receives and processes auditory information, both verbal and non-verbal

damage of temporal lobe

difficulty recognising words and faces, memory loss, hearing loss

key structures of the temporal lobe

• wernicke’s area

wernicke’s area

responsible for comprehending spoken and written language

brain diagram

https://quizlet.com/221887630/labeling-brain-anatomy-diagram/

plasticity

the ability of the brain’s synapses to be modified

cerebellum (during adolescence)

• there is an increase in the number of neural connections in the cerebellum

• explains why some teenagers are more physically coordinated than older adults

prefrontal cortex

• responsible for problem-solving, impulse control and risk management

• last part of the brain to develop in adolescence

amygdala

• responsible for processing emotions

• more active during adolescence

e.g. teenagers may make “bad decisions” due to their brains relying on the amygdala to process info, rather than the prefrontal cortex

corpus callosum (during adolescence)

• increase in the number of neural connections between the two hemispheres

electroencephalograph (EEG)

• detects, amplifies & records general patterns of electrical activity

• recorded as a series of peaks and troughs on a chart

e.g. epilepsy, Parkinson’s, depression

EEG in the states of vigilance

strengths of EEG

• provides general overall information

• non-invasive

• can be used over long periods of time (sleep studies)

limitations of EEG

• doesn’t provide info about specific parts of the brain (e.g. what lobe/area is activated)

• indicates the activity level but not the precise functions of neurons involved

who was Walter Freeman?

• an American neurologist

• developed a procedure known as the frontal lobotomy

lobotomy

surgical removal/destruction of the frontal lobes of the brain, aimed to treat various psychiatric conditions

result of lobotomy

• some patients experienced temporary relief from symptoms

• but led to changes in personality, cognitive impairment, and in severe cases - permanent disability or death

learning

a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of past experience.

stimulus-response approach

assuming changes in observed behaviours are a result of the environment in which the learning occurs.

attention

refers to information you are actively processing, either consciously or unconsciously.

sensation

the process by which sensory organs detect stimuli from the environment and transmit info to the brain for interpretation

→ physiological

perception

the mental process of receiving, organising and interpreting info received by our sense organs into meaningful objects and events

→ psychological

process of receiving and interpreting visual stimuli

1. reception

2. transduction

3. transmission

4. selection

5. organisation

6. interpretation

reception

Stimulus energy is collected by the eye.

transduction

Stimulus energy is converted by the receptor cells into nerve impulses.

transmission

Receptor cells send the nerve impulses to the primary sensory cortex, before the process of perception begins.

selection

Pick out important stimuli and pay attention to those.

organisation

The info reaches the brain and is organised, so that we are able to make sense of it.

interpretation

Our past experiences, motives, values and context gives the stimulus meaning.

memory

• our capacity of encoding, storing and retrieving information

• the process of sensation and perception allows information to be memorised

encoding

the conversion of sensory information into a form that can be processed by the brain.

storage

the retention of information.

retrieval

the recovery of information stored in the brain.

motivated forgetting

when we consciously or unconsciously block out memories that are distressing or unpleasant, often to protect ourselves from emotional pain.

decay theory

suggests that memories fade over time if they are not used or rehearsed, due to the natural weakening of memory traces in the brain.

what is Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)?

a progressive brain condition thought to be caused by repeated head injuries

why is CTE progressive?

it is degenerative, meaning it gets worse over time

what is CTE linked to?

linked to changes in mood, behaviour and memory

four (4) symptoms of CTE

• memory loss

• confusion

• aggression

• dementia in later stages

conditioning

A type of learning that focuses on the association that is made by the learner between a stimulus and a response.

stimulus

any variable present in the environment that may trigger a response.

response

an action or behaviour that is exhibited.

classical conditioning

A form of learning in which a new, neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that produces a reflexive, involuntary response until the new stimulus alone produces that response.

who was Pavlov?

Russian physiologist who accidentally discovered classical conditioning.

describe Pavlov’s study

• research measured the salivation in dogs when different foods were placed in

their mouths (connected a small tube to their mouths).

• he noticed the dogs began to salivate when his research assistant approached with food, well before the food made it anywhere near the dogs’ mouths!

• The dogs had learned to associate an existing response (salivation) to a new stimulus that had not previously caused the response (the research assistant).

who was John B. Watson?

An American psychologist who investigated whether emotional responses could be classically conditioned in humans.

describe Watson’s study

Watson presented Little Albert with a white rat (neutral stimulus).

• They paired the rat with a sudden loud noise, which naturally caused fear.

• Albert later showed fear when presented with the rat alone.

• His fear also generalised to some similar objects.

apply classical conditioning to Watson’s study

• UCS: loud noise

• UCR: natural fear response to the loud noise

• NS: white rat before pairing

• CS: white rat after pairing

• CR: fear response to the white rat

unconditioned stimulus

any stimulus that consistently leads to a response, without any learning having taken place.

unconditioned response

an unlearned response to a stimulus.

neutral stimulus

any stimulus that does not trigger a reflexive response.

conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus so it produces a response.

conditioned response

a reflexive response that has become associated with a stimulus during classical conditioning.

graduated exposure - application of classical conditioning

The learner is exposed to a series of situations or stimuli that evoke feelings of anxiety in order of least distressing to most distressing, in order to reduce or eliminate anxiety at each stage.

aversion therapy - application of classical conditioning

Used to eliminate undesirable behaviours by pairing a stimulus that leads to a bad habit with an undesirable stimulus that leads to the learner avoiding the bad habit in the future.

what is lifespan psychology?

Concerned with changes in people that begins at conception and continues throughout the lifespan.

stages of lifespan

• Infancy

• Childhood

• Adolescence

• Early adulthood

• Middle age

• Older age

• Infancy – birth to 2 years

• Childhood – 2 to 10 years

• Adolescence – 10 to 20 years

• Early adulthood – 20 to 40 years

• Middle age – 40 to 65 years

• Older age – 65 years and beyond

what are the four (4) areas of psychological changes across the lifespan?

physical development