US Congress Midterm 2

Reapportionment

Redistributing seats in the House among states based on population after the census.

Census

Population count conducted every 10 years that determines how House seats are apportioned among states.

Redistricting

The process of drawing electoral district lines after reapportionment.

Redistricting Responsibility

State legislatures are generally responsible for drawing district lines.

Other Redistricting Participants

Courts, governors, independent or bipartisan commissions, professional mapmakers

Gerrymandering

Drawing electoral district lines to promote a particular political or electoral outcome.

Historical Gerrymandering

Traditionally used to disenfranchise or weaken voters based on race.

Gerrymandering: Descriptive Representation

Districts may be drawn to increase the election of representatives who share demographic characteristics with constituents.

Gerrymandering: Party Advantage

District boundaries may be designed to help a particular political party win more seats.

Gerrymandering: Incumbent Advantage

District boundaries may be drawn to protect an existing officeholder from electoral competition.

Political Importance of Redistricting

How district lines are drawn can affect election results and which party controls the House for years.

Political Parties and Redistricting

Parties devote resources and develop strategies to influence the redistricting process.

Cracking

Splitting a party's or group's voting strength among districts to dilute its electoral leverage.

Packing

Concentrating a party's or group's voters into a district, potentially wasting votes.

Cracking — Example

Splitting Democratic voters among Republican-majority districts so Democrats cannot win any of them.

Packing — Example

Concentrating Democratic voters in one overwhelmingly Democratic district, leaving surrounding districts more Republican.

Racial Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines based on race to influence the election of minority candidates.

Majority-Minority District

A district in which a racial or ethnic minority group constitutes a majority of eligible voters.

Majority-Minority Districts: Potential Benefit

Can increase the number of minority candidates elected to Congress.

Majority-Minority Districts: Potential Drawback

Concentrating minority voters can make surrounding districts more conservative.

Racial Gerrymandering: Representation Evidence

mixed evidence whether majority-minority districts improve minority representation overall.

Voting Rights Act

Federal law protecting voting rights and prohibiting discriminatory electoral practices.

Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act

Required certain states to get federal approval before changing voting rules to prevent racial discrimination.

Preclearance

get permission from the federal government before changing their voting rules.

Racial Gerrymandering: Constitutional Concern

Race-based districting may be challenged as unconstitutional racial segregation or discrimination.

Primary Election

An election in which voters choose who will represent a political party in the general election.

General Election

An election in which voters choose who will actually fill an elected office.

Primary Election Turnout

fewer than 25% of eligible voters participate.

Primary Election Voters

party activists who are more ideologically extreme than general-election voters.

Primary Election Campaign Strategy

Candidates often run more ideologically extreme campaigns targeting their party's base.

General Election Voters

General elections include more moderate voters than primary elections.

General Election Campaign Strategy

Candidates often move toward the political center to attract moderate and independent voters.

Party Base

The core group of loyal voters who consistently support a political party.

Closed Primary

Only registered party members may vote in their party's primary.

Closed Primary: Disadvantage

Disadvantages voters who are not affiliated with a major political party.

Open Primary

Voters do not need to be registered party members to choose a party's primary.

Open Primary: Cross-Party Voting

A Democrat may vote in a Republican primary or vice versa, subject to state rules.

Modified Open or Closed Primary

Unaffiliated voters may participate in a party primary under specified rules.

Top-Two Primary

All candidates appear on the same ballot regardless of party affiliation, and the two highest vote-getters advance.

Top-Two Primary: California

California uses this system for congressional elections.

Top-Two Primary: Same-Party Candidates

Two candidates from the same political party can advance to the general election.

Ohio Primary System

Open primary with public declaration through party-ballot selection.

Cross-Party Primary Voting: Uncompetitive Election

A voter may choose another party's primary when their preferred party is extremely unlikely to win the general election.

Cross-Party Primary Voting: Special Election

A voter may participate in another party's primary when there are no other relevant races on the ballot.

Cross-Party Primary Voting: Limited Interest

A voter may select another party's primary because they do not care about the other races.

Open Primaries and Polarization

One study found that open and top-two primaries were associated with more moderate legislators.

Political Polarization

Increasing ideological distance and conflict between political parties.

Presidential Election

Federal election occurring every four years that includes the presidential contest.

Presidential Election Turnout

approximately 60%.

Midterm Election

Congressional election occurring halfway through a president's four-year term.

Midterm Election Turnout

approximately 40%.

Midterm Election Pattern

The president's political party nearly always loses congressional seats during midterms.

Surge-and-Decline Theory

Presidential elections attract enthusiastic voters who often do not participate in midterms.

Surge-and-Decline: Presidential Surge

High-profile presidential campaigns increase turnout among occasional voters.

Surge-and-Decline: Midterm Decline

Many occasional presidential voters stay home during midterm elections.

Surge-and-Decline — Example

A voter participates because they support a presidential candidate but does not vote two years later.

Referendum Theory

Midterm elections serve as a public evaluation of the sitting president's performance.

Referendum Theory — Example

Voters support the opposition party because they disapprove of the president's handling of the economy.

Balance Theory

Midterm voters attempt to check presidential power and move government toward the ideological center.

Balance Theory — Example

Voters elect more opposition-party legislators because they do not want the president's party controlling Congress.

Incumbent

A current officeholder seeking reelection.

Challenger

A candidate running against an incumbent.

Open-Seat Candidate

A candidate competing for a seat when no incumbent is running.

Incumbency Advantage

The electoral benefits of already holding office.

Incumbency Advantage: Name Recognition

Incumbents are more familiar to voters because of their existing public position.

Incumbency Advantage: Fundraising

Incumbents often have stronger fundraising networks and donor relationships.

Incumbency Advantage: Constituent Services

Incumbents can assist constituents with government-related problems, building voter goodwill.

Privileges of Office

Resources available to incumbents, including staff, official communications, visibility, and constituent services.

Vanishing Marginals

The historical trend toward incumbents winning by increasingly large margins, reducing electoral competitiveness.

Campaign Advertising

Activities designed to build name recognition and create a favorable public image.

Credit Claiming

Taking credit for government benefits, policies, or projects delivered to constituents.

Position Taking

Publicly expressing a stance on a political issue.

Campaign Advertising — Example

A representative attends local community events to increase name recognition.

Credit Claiming — Example

A representative highlights federal funding obtained for a local bridge.

Position Taking — Example

A candidate announces opposition to a proposed tax increase.

Retrospective Voting

Voters evaluate candidates based on their previous performance.

Prospective Voting

Voters evaluate candidates based on their proposed future policies or expected performance.

Party Identification

A voter's psychological attachment to a political party.

Campaign Finance

The collection and spending of money to influence political elections.

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

Federal agency responsible for administering and enforcing federal campaign-finance laws.

Campaign Funding Sources

Individuals, political action/party committees, and candidate self-funding.

Individual Contributions

Money donated directly by individual supporters to political campaigns, subject to applicable limits.

Candidate Self-Funding

Candidates use their personal money to finance their campaigns.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

An organization that raises and spends money to influence elections and may contribute directly to candidates.

PAC Contributions

$3,500 per candidate per election for certain PACs.

Multicandidate PAC

A PAC meeting requirements including at least 50 contributors, contributions to five candidates, and six months of registration.

Multicandidate PAC Contributions

$5,000 per candidate per election.

PAC Funding Importance

Lecture notes associate PACs with about one-fifth of House campaign funding and 5% of Senate campaign funding.

PAC Contributions: 2021–2022 Election Cycle

PAC contributions to candidates exceeded $474 million.

Leadership PAC

A political committee associated with a politician that supports other candidates and political activities.

Independent Expenditures

Political spending to influence elections that occurs separately from candidates campaigns.

Independent Expenditures: Spending Limits

Independent expenditures are not subject to ordinary direct contribution limits.

Independent Expenditures: Coordination

Independent expenditures cannot be coordinated with candidates or their campaigns.

Independent Expenditures: Direct Contributions

Independent-expenditure-only committees cannot contribute directly to candidate campaigns.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Supreme Court decision allowing corporations and labor unions to use general treasury funds for independent political expenditures.

Super PAC

An independent-expenditure-only political committee that may raise and spend unlimited funds independently.

Super PAC: Direct Contributions

Cannot donate directly to a candidate's campaign.

Super PAC: Coordination

Cannot coordinate independent expenditures with the candidate being supported.

Super PAC — Example

A Super PAC independently spends $5 million on advertisements supporting a presidential candidate.

527 Organization

A political group that doesn't have to pay certain taxes but must register with the IRS and report who gives it money and how it spends that money.