child development 1

developmental psychology

how and why we change over time and what processes underlie changes; Genes and environment jointly contribute to universal patterns of change and differences across individuals

prenatal period

the period before birth which plays an important role in later development, influencing health and psychological development

early childhood

the years between about 2-6, when children begin to manage emotions and behavior

adolescence

the stage that begins with the biological changes of puberty at about 11/12 and lasts until adulthood

infant and toddler years

first two and a half years of life, when many typical children begin to move and communicate on their own

middle childhood

the period from about age 6 until about age 12, which is the time for making friends and excelling in school

epigenetics

the study of how your behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect how your genes work, without changing your underlying DNA sequence

evolutionary theory

A theory of social change that holds that society is moving in a definite direction; life on earth changes and develops over generations

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Freud believed that the stages were determined by the developing sexuality of the child; children learn how to manage different sensual and sexual energies.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Learning through observation and imitation of others.

behaviorism

A branch of psychology that focuses on observable, measurable behavior, assuming that behaviors are acquired through interaction with the physical and social environment via conditioning; what a person does rather what they think or feel

Piaget's four stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational; The four periods of cognitive development described by Jean Piaget, in which children's thinking proceeds through qualitatively different ways of understanding the world.

information processing theory

An approach that studies the development of thinking and understanding by describing how a person pays attention, remembers, and reacts to the world, similar to how a computer processes information.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

The theory that culture plays a role in every part of development; emphasize how children’s learning is based on interactions with other people in a social context

nature versus nurture

A debate surrounding the relative importance of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) in determining behavior; Whether innate processes underline change or Strength of environmental influence

attachment theory

a theory about how humans form strong emotional bonds with key individuals early on (starting in childhood) to help manage stress, fear, and uncertainty; These bonds provide comfort and safety, shape how we see ourselves and others, and influence our relationships throughout life

John Bowlby --> early experiences are considered to be crucial; innate drive to form close relationships and attachment bonds with one another

data collection

capturing and gathering all data necessary to complete the processing of transactions; how we get the information

self-report

a method in which people provide subjective information about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, typically via questionnaire or interview; cheap and large sample size but is entirely subjective and people may not be entirely honest

observation

Document behaviors in natural settings or experimental settings; includes neural and physiological responses

Study Design

Framework outlining how research is conducted; how we are setting up the project

experimental study design

Impose manipulation on some groups; all groups same on other characteristics or random assignment

You control what you are interested in examining

Compare outcomes among groups; difference caused by manipulation

Quasi-experimental study design

naturally occurring manipulations being taken advantage of when researchers cannot randomly assign participants to groups; people are already grouped together naturally

correlational study design

- examines the relationship between variables

- correlation: association between 2 variables

- correlation does not equal causation

assessing change

figure out what is changing

Cross-sectional study design

an observational research design that collects data from a population (different groups) at a single, specific point in time

Longitudinal study design

follows the same group over a period of time (months, years)

cross-sequential study design

combines both cross-sectional and longitudinal by studying multiple age groups over a period of time

prenatal development

The baby's development during a pregnancy; Mom and dad have 23 pairs of chromosomes, they inherited one from each of their parents → to make the next generation, DNA is mixed up for genetic diversity during meiosis

variations

Over 8 million gene variations in each parent; Environmental influences on development start before conception, and can even occur generations before

In-utero influences start before conception and can be profound

Teratogens

drugs, foods; external agents, substances, or conditions that can disrupt embryonic or fetal development and cause birth defects, miscarriage, or developmental disabilities; some effects are evident immediately, but others might not show up for decades

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype

physical appearance resulting from genetic makeup

sickle cell anemia

a genetic disorder that causes abnormal hemoglobin, resulting in some red blood cells assuming an abnormal sickle shape

Schizophrenia

severe impairment of thought processes and perceptions, loss of touch with reality, abnormal motor behavior, delusions

what can babies do when they are born?

capitalize on reflexes

reflexes

unlearned, specific organized involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

Babinski reflex

an involuntary movement where the big toe bends upward and the other toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked

Moro reflex

Infant reflex where a baby will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement.

rooting reflex

a baby spontaneously turns and sucks something (like their own hand) that touches their cheek

observational method

a method that studies a newborns vision; show babies faces and objects

See what they do

Do they look? Where and for how long?

palmar grasp

If you press a newborn's palm, their fingers will curl in. Disappears by 5-6 months.

preference method

a method used to gain information about infants' perceptual abilities by presenting two (or more) stimuli and observing which stimulus the infant prefers

The newborn's vision is estimated to be

20/600;

Focus on things about 4-20 inches away

By 6 months, newborns vision is almost perfect

They prefer facial features over other objects

habituation method

to study infant perceptual capabilities, researchers habituate infants to certain stimuli, and then change the stimuli and observe the infant's response; over time, habituation occurs and looking decreases as babies become accustomed to the stimulus

early development

Come equipped with reflexed and sensory abilities; Rapid improvements in sensory abilities, in motor movements, and coordinating information across "systems"

infants in the first year can:

Engage in deliberate acts to elicit responses (temper tantrums to get responses they want)

Exhibit robust memory (caregivers, basic routines)

Have growing language comprehension and production (via words or gestures)

differential susceptibility

some children are inherently more sensitive to their environment than others, meaning they are disproportionately affected by both negative (adverse) and positive (supportive) experiences

assimilation

Interpret new information according to existing schemes/knowledge structure

accomodation

adapting our current understandings or creating new ones (schemas) to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants learn through senses and actions and actively engage with world in sensorimotor via actions to learn

Schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

object permanence

the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

primary circular reactions

in Piaget's framework, the first infant habits during the sensorimotor stage, in which babies begin to adapt their reflexes to new uses and show more creative behavior.

secondary circular reactions

The second of three types of feedback loops in sensorimotor intelligence, this one involving people and objects; babies learn to extend their activities to manipulate the world around them. Infants discover that they can use their bodies to act on an external object to get a reaction

coordination of secondary circular reactions

fourth substage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage; infants begin to coordinate two or more actions to achieve simple objectives. This is the first sign of goal-directed behavior.

Tertiary Circular Reactions

in Piaget's framework, "little scientist" activities of the sensorimotor stage, beginning around age 1, involving flexibly exploring the properties of objects; the ability to deliberately vary their actions to see the results.

implicit memory

Memory of new skills and processes and ability to habituate

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

nativist theory

A theoretical perspective that maintains that babies are born knowing a great deal about how the world works.

fast-mapping

the speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning

socio-emotional development

gradual process of understanding, experiencing, expressing and managing emotions; and developing positive sense of self and meaningful relationships with others

Emotions

Reactions to your thoughts or your environment that involve your body, your thoughts, and your behaviors

contingencies

the predictable "if-then" relationship between a child's action (behavior) and what happens immediately afterward (consequence); serve and return

ex. infants acts (babbles, points), parent responds (look, touch, smile)

synchrony

the dynamic, moment-to-moment matching of behaviors, emotions, and biological rhythms between a child and their caregiver; shared timing/rhythm of the interaction —> smiling together, co-vocalization

affective matching

the process where a caregiver and a child mirror, coordinate, and respond to each other's emotional expressions and states in real time

match intensity of each other's emotional states

ex. Baby kicks or squeals with excitement, caregiver matches high energy

social smile

A smile in reaction to the sight or sound of someone an infant is connected to.

separation anxiety

emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment

stranger wariness/anxiety

Babies' demonstration of caution around new people

social referencing

Infants reliance on caregivers for knowledge (expressions, vocal cues) about how to respond in unfamiliar situations; increases with development; especially important in ambiguous situations

emotional regulation

Ability to manage and respond to emotional experiences.

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

temperament

basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin —> a person's inborn, biologically rooted style of reacting to the world and processing emotions

goodness of fit

The idea that babies benefit from a good match between their personalities and their caregivers

responsiveness

The idea that a caregiver should acknowledge and react to an infant's bids for attention

secure attachment

In attachment theory, children who have a sense of trust in their caregivers that allows them to explore their environment

insecure attachment

In attachment theory, children who have not established a sense of trust in their caregivers to soothe them when they are upset

insecure-resistant attachment

In attachment theory, a form of insecure attachment characterized babies' angry and hostile responses to their caregiver who they perceive as inconsistent and unreliable

insecure-avoidant attachment

In attachment theory, a form of insecure attachment characterized by babies' emotional distance from their caregivers who they perceive as being unable to soothe them

overextension

the use of a given word in a broader context than is appropriate

underextension

when children define words more narrowly than adults do

experience-expectant

Refers to brain functions that require certain basic common experiences (which an infant can be expected to have) in order to develop normally.

experience-dependent

brain functions that depend on particular, variable experiences and therefore may or may not develop in a particular person

symbolic communication

the verbal and nonverbal symbolism used by others to convey meaning; Infants behaviors are assigned meaning and interpretation by the parent, who uses imitation and elaboration to help infants learn symbolic value
Parents ability to deduce implicit information from simple behaviors and understand their infants state of mind

behavioral communication

Newborns communicate through behavior and movements to their caregivers as they are unable to communicate verbally; Motor improvements are a part of their developing communication toolbox, allowing them to relay to their caregivers more effectively their interests and emotional states

autonomic responses

Infants use unconscious autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses—such as changes in heart rate, breathing, and arousal changes—as a way to signal distress, safety, and physical needs to caregivers long before speech or intentional gestures develop
Behaviors like crying or cooing are triggered by arousal changes like hunger coldness or sleep → trigger their caregivers alerting attention network, leading to a parental desire to meet infants needs

microgenetic research

A study method where individuals are observed repeatedly and intensively over a short period of time to track how a specific developmental change or learning process unfolds as it happens

affordance

refers to the idea that objects and experiences in the environment need to be understood in terms of what you can do with them; the action possibilities an object or environment offers a child

proximodistal development

The pattern of growth and motor control that progresses from the center of the body outward toward the extremities (such as gaining control of the torso and arms before the hands and fingers)

cephalocaudal development

The pattern of growth and motor control that progresses from head to toe (such as gaining control of the head and neck before the trunk and legs).

effortful control

the ability to voluntarily manage one's attention, behavior, and emotions to override automatic impulses

low indicates a weak capacity for self-regulation

high indicates a strong ability to override urges and manage distress

negative affect

the extent to which a person experiences unpleasant emotions, distress, or a poor self-concept

low indicates calmness and serenity

high indicates frequent distress, unpleasant emotions and irritability