Ch 8: The Adaptive Mind

Classical conditioning

The story of Pavlov and his dogs lead to a breakthrough in learning theory that is now called ___________.

Unconditional stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that can elicit an unlearned response (an instinctual stimulus)

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

An unlearned reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (an instinctual or inborn reaction)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

stimulus that elicits a response as a result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (a learned stimulus)

Conditioned Response (CR)

Response that is identical to the unconditioned response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus (a learned response)

A form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) that is identical to or very similar to the unconditioned response (UCR)

Explain what classical conditioning is

“Little Albert” experiment

John Watson paired a white rat with a frightening noise until the baby was conditioned to be afraid of the white rat on site (after 7 pairings)

Counterconditioning

The process of reversing classical conditioning by pairing the conditioned stimulus (CS) with a new unconditioned stimulus (UCS) for a response that is stronger than the conditioned response (CR)

Operant conditioning

Learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence

1. Positive Reinforcement

2. Negative Reinforcement

3. Positive Punishment

4. Negative Punishment

There are four ways in which the consequences of our behavior can be influenced:

Positive reinforcement

When a reward is given and the consequence of a behavior leads to an increase in the probability that the behavior will occur again

Positive reinforcer

the positive consequence that is presented (not the person presenting it)

1. Timing - must be presented within a short time of the desired behavior

2. Consistency - must be presented nearly every time the desired behavior occurs

3. A True Positive Reinforcer - must be something that is actually reinforcing

Three things have to be adhered to in order for Positive Reinforcement learning to occur:

Primary reinforcers

Things that are innately reinforcing (examples: food, warmth, sexual gratification)

Secondary reinforcers

Reinforcers that are learned (examples: money, prizes, grades, applause)

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

The reinforcer is given every time

Fixed ratio schedule

The reinforcer is given only after a specified number of responses (Example: a seamstress gets a paycheck each time she makes 6 dresses)

Variable ratio

The reinforcer is given after a varying number of responses

Fixed Interval Schedule

The reinforcer is given after a fixed amount of time (Example: every 5 minutes, a piece of food is given to a dog doing tricks)

Variable interval schedule

The reinforcer is given after a variable amount of time (Example: the dog is given food on the average of every 5 minutes)

shaping

Rewarding a series of approximate behaviors until you get the behavior you want

Negative reinforcement

An increase in behavior (reinforcement) that occurs as a result of the removal or avoidance of a aversive (bad) event

Punishment

When the consequence of a behavior leads to a decrease in the probability that the behavior will occur again (the opposite of reinforcement)

Positive punishment

Presenting/adding an aversive/bad stimulus

negative punishment

Taking away/subtracting a good stimulus

• Punishment has a “generalized inhibiting effect”

• People learn to dislike the punisher

• Punishment does not teach the appropriate behavior

Some drawbacks to using punishment:

• Do not use physical punishment (creates worse behavior in children)

• Use positive reinforcement

• Punish behaviors and not the person (stop punishment when the behavior stops)

• Do not mix punishments with rewards

• Be consistent (don’t say one thing and do another)

Guidelines for the use of Punishment

Stimulus discrimination

Discriminating between appropriate and inappropriate occasions for a response (Ex: learning to express sympathy when something sad has been told to us, learning to stop at a stop sign)

Stimulus generalization

The tendency for similar stimuli to elicit the same response (ex: Little Albert was also afraid of white dogs and rabbits)

extinction

The process of unlearning a learned response because the original source of learning has been removed from the environment

classical conditioning

Extinction occurs when a CS is no longer paired with a UCS (CC fear responses are difficult to extinguish)

Operant conditioning 2

Extinction occurs when the consequence of a behavior changes (or is no longer reinforced)

modeling

Learning based on the observation of others’ behavior

Albert Bandura

__________stressed that people learn by watching others long before there is any chance for the behavior to occur and be reinforced

Association (UCS – CS)

Classical Conditioning is learning through

Consequences

Operant Conditioning is learning through

Observation

Modeling is learning through

Operant Conditioning. Positive Reinforcement. The hug reinforces the tantrum.

A toddler is having a temper tantrum. The mother comes over and hugs the child to soothe him/her. As a result, the child seems to have more temper tantrums than he/she used to.

Classical Conditioning. UCS: food, UCR: running, CS: can opener noise, CR: running

You feed your cat with an electric can-opener. Now, regardless of what you are opening, every time the cat hears the can-opener, she comes running looking for food.

Operant Conditioning. Punishment. Negative punishment: takes away child’s freedom, Positive Punishment: makes him stand in the corner (depends on how you word it)

A toddler is having a temper tantrum. His mother makes him stand in the corner until he is quiet. As a result, the boy has less frequent tantrums.

Classical Conditioning. UCS: kiss, UCR: happy, CS: arcade, CR: happy

A teenage girl met a boy and had her first kiss with him at an arcade near her school. These events made her feel giddy and happy. Now, every time she walks by the arcade or sees anything associated with an arcade, she feels giddy and happy.

Operant Conditioning. Negative reinforcement. Dad takes away her chore, which reinforces the tantrum

A toddler is having a temper tantrum because her father is asking her to clean her room. Because the tantrum is more than he can stand, the father stops asking her to clean her room. As a result, the child seems to have more temper tantrums than she used to

Modeling

A younger sibling watches an older sibling punt a football. The first time the younger sibling goes to punt, he already knows how to hold the football and how to kick it.