AP Psych 2.1-2.2

Perception

the active process by which the brain organizes and interprets raw sensory information to give it meaning

Bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Top-down processing

information processing guided by a higher-level of mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Schema

a mental framework that helps organize and interpret information

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Attention

the cognitive process of focusing on certain stimuli while ignoring others

Cocktail party effect

the ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy room while tuning out the rest

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

Closure

when the brain automatically fills in missing information in an incomplete visual stimulus to perceive a complete object

Figure and ground

the brain’s tendency to simplify a visual scene by separating a primary object from its background

Proximity

when the brain perceives objects close to one another as belonging to the same group

Similarity

when the brain groups together individual items that share visual characteristics into a single whole unit

Retinal disparity

by comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity between the two, the close the object

Convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images

Relative clarity

determines depth by noting that distant objects are less precise than nearby objects

Relative size

depth cue that notes that if two objects are assumed to be the same size, the one with the smaller retinal image looks farther away

Texture gradient

a visual signal in which a surface looks coarse and detailed up close and finer and denser far away

Linear perspective

a visual cue in which two parallel lines appear to meet together in the distance

Interposition

a visual cue in which one object partially obscures or covers another object, giving the perception that the object is closer

Perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

Apparent movement

a perceptual illusion in which the brain perceives motion in objects or stimuli that are not actually moving

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category to compare to

Assimilation

interpreting our experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting our current schemas to incorporate new information

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy—a mental shortcut—that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

Representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

Availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

Gambler’s fallacy

the belief that past random events can influence future independent outcomes

Sunk-cost fallacy

a cognitive bias where people continue with a task, project, or relationship just because they have already invested time, money, or effort into it

Executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

Divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Functional fixedness

when our prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions; a bias that limits a persons ability to use an object in more ways