anthropology 101 exam 2 study guide NOT FINISHED

Subsistence systems

the set of practices used by members of a society to acquire food "making a living"

broad spectrum diet

human subsistence pattern that includes a wide variety of food: Hunting, gathering of wild plant resources (not large land animals, small stuff). Associated with foraging mode of subsistence.

foraging

procurement of wild plant and animal food available in the environments. hunting fishing gathering of wild plant resources (broad spectrum diet). humans evolved as foragers but has become a more marginalized livelihood but societies continue to practice it. example Washoe, Northern and southern Paiute and western Shoshone. also in society tend to be egalitarian with a focus on generosity and sharing being a social norm. work is divided by gender. and is mostly nomadic but still has a few sedentary societies (ingenious examples).

Nomad/Nomadic

Moving from place to place instead of living in a permanent location, often following resources, seasonal changes or work. Associated mainly with foraging and pastoralism.

Pastoralism

relies on herds of domesticated livestock. can be and is most often nomadic referred to as nomadic pastoralism. domestication of herd animals, another step in agricultural advancement, but still used today mainly in Africa, example the Nuer of east Africa. social life and status revolve around animal. Increased presence of grazing animals does modify the environment. also in such societies its considered personal property is owned (children and the elderly are owned by men).

Agriculture

relies primarily on domesticated plants and animals. Humans tend to these species and modify the environment to ensure their success. Diverse system that can in degree of landscape modifications. Very old (10,000 years). can be divided by subgroups: horticulture, intensive small-holder and industrial and globalized food production.

horticulture

relies on small gardens that move periodically. slash and burn systems. multi-cropping/intercropping. societies who practice are smaller in populations with crops being consumed by the family units or exchanged with others in the same community. Social life revolves around planting and the crops, also crops are used as gifts. Ex. indigenous amazon basin horticulturists (slash and burners). (kind of just let things grow)

Small-holder, intensive agriculture

greater input into crop management compared to horticulture (irrigation, draft animals, fertilizer). reliance on a few stable crops. societies who practice have larger populations, greater pressures on distribution of land (get a lot out of a small piece of land). increased labor, and division of labor. wealth difference and can be argued to be “lower quality” of life (compared to horticulture).

industrial/globalized agriculture

high yields but very high input (fossil fuels, pesticides, genetically-modified seeds, fertilizer). Monocropping. enough food to feed the planet but nod equally distributed (political ecology). each product has a commodity chain and distance and completion replace communal experiences.

anthropocene

most recent geological period, started in the 1800s. when human activities have alter he geochemical cycles of the earth.

cultural ecology

made/thought of by Julian steward. cultural traits reflect the environment and the idea that “humans are controlled by the environment and it changes social organization because of it” or human societies change and adapt based on their surrounding environment and technology. Ex. western Shoshone foragers of the southern Nevada.

ethnoecology/ethnobiology

the scientific study of how human cultures perceive, understand, and interact with the natural ecosystems around them. The use and knowledge of plants, animals and ecosystems by societies. humans are active agent in the environment in a both positive and negative way.

political ecology

how political, economic, and social power dynamics shape human-environment interactions and the uneven distribution of environmental benefits and burdens. political and economic systems that constrain local behavior. Challenges standard narratives regarding environmental destruction and conservation. Ideas about "nature" and human imprints. Ex. famine (specifically Irish potato famine); Enough food is produced to feed everyone, distribution is usually the source of hunger and famine. politics and power. Ex. people verses parks debate.

slash-and-burn/shifting

a traditional farming method that involves cutting down and burning trees and vegetation in a forest or woodland to clear land for temporary crop cultivation. not harmful and leaves areas to regenerate which promotes biodiversity and controlled burns are beneficial for the environment. Ex. global amazon basin indigenous horticulturalist.

traditional ecological knowledge

a cumulative, place-based body of knowledge, practice, and belief regarding the relationship between living beings and their environment. Provides sustainable interactions.

economic anthropology

the study of how humans obtain the material necessities: good, clothing and shelter. how people produce, exchange and consume material objects. The role of immaterial thing such as labor, services, knowledge play in our livelihood. describe what people actually do what they do in regards to money, trade and goods and why, qualitative not quantitative. Different from economics.

Modes of exchange

Ways to integrate economic and social relations and distribute material goods. exchange is central to social relationships cultural values. exchange is different across cultures, so its a part of global cultural diversity. reciprocity (all its types), redistribution and markets.

Reciprocty

Transfer to exchange of goods between individuals or groups of relatively equal status.. Characterized by movement of goods back and forth in both directions. Crucial for creating, maintaining, strengthening, or breaking social relationships. types: generalized, balanced and negative.

Balanced reciprocity

giving products with expectation of roughly equal return and timing. enforced by social mechanism (punishment and or shame), creates obligation. in the past used to create and maintain social partnerships between more distant groups (trade, political allies). Ex. Christmas and birthdays. Ex. kula ring exchange in Papua new guinea.

generalized reciprocity

giving goods with no expectations of return of timing. between socially/emotionally close people. tied to social obligations. tends to ensure social equality in a group. Ex. Halloween. Ex. Inuit meat sharing after a big hunt.

negative reciprocity

attempt to get something for nothing. motivated by desire to obtain goods. not about social relationship (often with a stranger). used by societies to obtain goods they cannot produce themselves. Ex. Gambling and email scams.

Redistribution

the accumulation of goods or labor by a particular person or institution for the purpose of dispersal at a later rate. requires a centralized political body to coordinate and enforce, found in all societies. Ex. Taxes Ex. Potlach of northwest coast indigenous groups.

Markets

social institutions with prices or exchange equivalencies. medium of exchange (usually money but can be other). based on transactions, often impersonal but not always. goal is acquisitors rather than social relationships. ideally regulated by supply and demand. Ex. lobstering in Maine.

Modes of produciton

the social relationships through which human labor (work) is used to produce things (transforming resources through tools, skill, organization and knowledge). comparative approach. places capitalism in historical context'; other forms of production can exist simultaneously. Domestic production, tributary production and capitalist production.

domestic production

kin ordered. foragers and small-scale farmers. collective ownership of means of production. labor organized by kinship relations. generalized and balanced reciprocity. lower rates of social domination. Ex. Fair-trade coffee farmers (small scale, semi-subsistence famers in highland Guatemala (maya). domestic production of coffee).

Tributary production

societies with classes of rulers and subjects. farmers and herders who produce themselves but also give portion to rulers as tribute. tribute is used by ruling class rather than exchanged. redistribution in the forms of feasts/protection/etc. productions controlled politically and can be conflictual. pre-capitalist (feudal systems in Europe and Asia). Ex. Northwest coast potlach.

Capitalist poruction

began during 17th and 18th centuries in Europe. private property owned by a capitalist class. workers sell their labor to others, are separated from the means of production. market exchanges. keep wages low in order to sell products for more than it costs to produce the product. generates a surplus. Ex. fair-trade coffee farmers (products sold through capitalistic markets in a way that aims to provide a more equitable profit).

consumption

the process of buying, eating, or using a resource, food, commodity or service

commodity

a good that is produced for sale or exchange for other goods.

commodity chain

the network of labor, production and distribution processes that links raw material extraction to the final consumer product.

globalization

Manfred Steger. the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.

Ethnoscape

one of the 5 “-scapes” by Appadurai. the flow of people across boundaries. Ex. tourism and migration

ideoscape

one of the 5 “-scapes” by Appadurai. The flow of ideas. Ex. missionaries.

technoscape

one of the 5 scapes by Appadurai. The flow of money across political borders. Ex. mining wealth.

mediascape

one of the 5 scapes by Appadurai. flow of media across borders. Ex. films, sports events.

Foodways

the cultural norms and aptitudes surrounding food and eating. procurement/production, preparation, consumption etc.

glocalization

the adaptation of global ideas into locally palatable forms.

syncretism

combining different beliefs into a new, harmonious whole, often as a response to colonialism and or globalization. Ex. candomblé religious practices in Brazil.

global north

term used to describe economically developed, wealthy, and technologically advanced countries. who had developed “good” economics (global north) vs who has growing economies. wealthier countries give loans which opens said countries to more capitalistic ideas/deals/transactions which doesn’t necessarily benefit said country and or its people Ex. oil and mining.

global south

a term that groups together developing, emerging, and low-income countries. who had developed “good” economics vs who has growing economies (global south). countries in the global south are dealing with what’s going to be the most popular/make a profit but also what’s best for the people. wealthier countries ideas/deals/transactions which doesn’t necessarily benefit said country or its people. Ex. Bolivia, long history of resource extraction for profit of outsiders turn against neoliberalism period of economic growth thorough natural gas and quinoa then a current crisis which leads back to neoliberal leader; open market policies.

Neo-liberalism

emphasis on free-markets, privatization, deregulation such as the world bank, international monetary fund and world trade organization. inequal distribution of wealth between regions, neo-colonialism, global north/global south.

Trade

the voluntary exchange of goods, services, or financial assets between buyers and sellers, companies, or nations usually for the common goal of benefit

Fair trade

set of agreements between producers and buyers to maintain living wages independent of the market. good intent, but not always equal for all participants in the production.

migration

movement of individuals, families, or whole communities either within one country (ex from rural to urban areas) or across national boundaries. not always unidirectional, seasonal migration, return home.

pushes

factors that make people leave sending communities (migration). Ex. poverty and unemployment, war and conflict, discrimination. Ex. the religious persecution of Muslim minority ethnic group in majoirty-buddist Myanmar.

pulls

factors that make receiving communities “desirable” destinations (at least in appearance/rumors) Ex. peace and/or political protection, educational opportunities, jobs and higher wages. Ex. Muslim minority ethnic group from Myanmar going to Bangladesh by proximity and permission/opportunity to live in refugee camps.

labor migrants

type of migrant that move in search of low-skill, low-wage jobs (often do jobs native born citizens wont do). Race and global economic hierarchies shape who is considered a migrant (migrant vs ex-pat or jet-setter)

professional migrants

type of migrant that is a highly trained professionals filling middle class jobs. Race and global economic hierarchies shape who is considered a migrant (migrant vs ex-pat or jet-setter).

entrepreneurial migrants

type of migration to start businesses (“ethnic niche” jobs-restaurants, Chinatown stores). Race and global economic hierarchies shape who is considered a migrant (migrant vs ex-pat or jet-setter).

refugees

forced migrants (because of war, conflict, natural disaster, or persecution, often to camps). Race and global economic hierarchies shape who is considered a migrant (migrant vs ex-pat or jet-setter)

transnationalism

the idea/concept that peoples lives may be lived across borders/significantly influence by events across borders

power

the ability to induce behavior of others in specified ways by means of coercion or physical force; an aspect of all relationships. not just by force but also more methods that influence how people behave.

authority

the ability to induce behavior of others by persuasion; culturally determined. gives someone power.

legitimacy

the perception that an individual has a valid right to leadership. can either be earned or inherited.

egalitarian society

people are fundamentally equal in moral worth, rights, status, and opportunities, rejecting formal class systems and arbitrary hierarchies. a few differences between members in wealth, status, and power: bands and tribes.

Band

type of egalitarian society, smaller population of foragers who are nomadic, leadership is fluid and shared. authority is based on age and gender. legitimacy is based on experience/skill, elders, healers, etc. modesty is value (don’t have a big ego). conflict is resolved through rituals and ridicule/humor (friendly).

tribes

egalitarian society, Various groups linked together 100-5,000 people, small-scale agriculturalist or foragers. Leadership roles open, not hereditary obtained through age and kinship structures such as marriage and formal gift giving (kula ring). authority based on kinships, age and gender. legitimacy earned through experience/skill/generosity. Ex. “big men” of Papua new guinea. conflict resolved through negotiation, mediation or divine events. warfare consists of raids or feuds both internally and externally (ritualized warfare).

ranked society

greater inequality between individuals and their kin groups, hierarchy of prestige compared to egalitarian societies. larger populations, regional interactions/control/competition. includes chiefdoms.

chiefdom

contains a permanent political office/institution of chief maybe e hereditary but in some cases earned. based on economic redistribution and marked by material differences. authority based on hereditary and kinship, skill/ability. legitimacy is sustained through ability to organize labor, quire goods, redistribution good and/or provide protection. (kinship/ancestry-clans)

stratified society

largest populations/regions based in larger-scale economic production (agriculture). increased specialization and strata dedicated to particular tasks/roles. elites control strategic resources that sustain life. leadership is institutionalized (inherited or elected), Ex caste systems in India.

state

large, diverse populations, defined geographic territory. high degree of social stratification/specialization. intensive agriculture, industrial subsistence, trade. complex economics (often market economies). political power is centralized in a government that has a monopoly over the legitimate use of. Ex. modern state: US, Ex. ancient state: Egypt.

hegemony

a dominant idea/ideology that shapes how people think and leads it to becoming accepted or the norm. accepted values of who is ruling and why that is accepted and welcomed. “the ability of a dominant group to create consent and agreement within a population without the use or threat of force”. through education, media, or other enculturation processes, develop a view of what is normal and appropriate.

Nation

a group connected by language, territorial base, history, political organization. about 5,000 nations globally. Ex. indigenous nations within the united states

social movements

collection actions to transform cultural patterns and government policy. arise around any social/political issue people want to change. may amin to change politics through law/policy or cultural awareness/norms. Ex. Chile returned to democratic rule in 1990 through protests over prices and constitutional reform all due to social movements. Ex. civil rights movement 1940-1970 and occupy wall street in the 2000s.