PSYC 201 -04 : Chapter 7

Classical Conditioning

learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reward or punishment.

USC - Unconditioned stimulus

not learned - naturally causes something

UCR - Unconditioned response

not learned - causes natural reaction

CS - Conditioned stimulus

learned - trigger / causes it

CR - Conditioned response

learned - reaction

Advertising cognition

the way consumers process and interpret advertisements, shaping their perceptions and influencing purchasing decisions.

Positive punishment

situation in which an operant is followed by presentation or addition of an aversive stimulus

Negative punishment

situation in which an operant is followed by the removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus

Stimulus

anything that causes a functional reaction, activity, or response in a person, organism, or system

Law of effect

the principle stating that responses followed by positive outcomes are more likely to occur in the future, while those followed by negative outcomes are less likely.

Positive reinforcement

response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus

Negative reinforcement

response results in the removal of, avoidance of, or escape from a punishing stimulus

Thinking

Used shaping procedure of selecting reinforcing successively closer approximations of goal or behavior until the goal is displayed

Who used shaping?

B.F. Skinner

Cognition

mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge (process of knowing and retaing)

Availability heuristic

a mental shortcut where you judge how common, likely, or dangerous something is based on how easily examples of it come to your mind (unknown and stero)

Representative heuristic

a mental shortcut used to make judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty, by comparing it to an existing prototype in our minds (what yk)

Operant

a learning process where voluntary behaviors are shaped, strengthened, or weakened by their consequences

Fixed interval schedule (FI)

predictable time

Fixed Ratio schedule (FR)

predictable number of response

Variable interval schedule (VI)

unpredictable time

Variable ratio schedule (VR)

unpredictable number

Primary reinforcer

a stimulus that is naturally reinforcing, such as food or water, which satisfies basic biological needs.

Algorithm

using a specific rule, procedure, or method (such as a mathematical formula) that inevitably produces the correct solution

Observational learning

the process of acquiring new behaviors, values, and attitudes by watching and imitating others, a concept famously pioneered by psychologist Albert Bandura through his Social Learning Theory.

Placebo

an individual psychological and physiological response to what is actually a fake treatment or drug; also called placebo effect.

Decision making strategies : The Single-Feature Model

Making a decision by focusing on a single feature

Decision making strategies : The Additive Model

Systematically evaluating the important features of each alternative

Decision making strategies : The Elimination-by-Aspects Model

Rating choices based on features; eliminating those that do not
meet the desired criteria, despite other desirable characteristics

Decision making models

a structured framework that explains how people or animals process choices, weigh options, and select a final course of action or belief.

Mental set

The tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past.

Ivan Parvlov

A Russian physiologist known for his work in classical conditioning, particularly the concept of the "conditioned reflex" through experiments with dogs.

John Watson

An American psychologist who established behaviorism and is best known for his experiments demonstrating classical conditioning with children, notably the "Little Albert" experiment.

Little Albert Experiement

A famous experiment conducted by John Watson and Rosalie Rayner, which demonstrated classical conditioning in humans by conditioning a young boy to fear a white rat.

Who argued that psychology should study observable behavior, not inner thoughts or consciousness

John Watson

The belief bias effect

a cognitive shortcut where you judge how logical an argument is based on whether you already believe the conclusion, rather than looking at the actual evidence or formal logic

The confirmation bias

our natural, often subconscious tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that matches what we already believe, while ignoring or throwing out evidence that doesn't

The fallacy of positive instances

a cognitive bias where people notice and remember events that confirm their expectations while ignoring or forgetting the times those expectations fail

The overestimation effect

a mental habit where people think they are much better, smarter, or more skilled at something than they actually are

Edward L. Thorndike

was a psychologist known for his work in animal behavior and the Law of Effect, which states that responses followed by pleasurable outcomes are more likely to occur again.

Development of Intelligence Tests

Alfred Binet was the first to develop them - Devised a series of tests to measure different mental abilities for the French government

What did Alfred Binet test focus on?

 Focused on elementary mental abilities
 Developed goal to help identify “slow”
children who could benefit from special
help
 Invented concept of mental age

Lewis Terman

then used stanford binet intelligence test and translated it to intelligence quotient (IQ)

IQ formula

mental age divided by chronological age and multiplying the result by 100

Charles Henry Turner

zoologist, first african american psychologist, studied bees and how they could learn, remember, and solve problems 

Group Intelligence Testing

The Army needed to develop mass testing option for
millions of recruits during WW1

Army Alpha Test

administered in writing

Army Beta test

administered orally to recruits and draftees who could not read

Partial reinforcement

occurrence of a particular response is only sometimes followed by a reinforcer

“JAWS”

Job-related Affective Well-being Scale, a questionnaire used to measure people's emotional and affective reactions to their jobs

Charles Turner study

wanted to determine whether moths of a certain species could hear.

Flynn effect

is the substantial and steady rise in average intelligence quotient (IQ) test scores observed across generations in many parts of the world over the 20th century

Cross-Cultural Studies on group of differences in IQ

looks at how different cultural backgrounds shape human behavior, thinking, and emotions (culture bias)

Culture free IQ test

an intelligence test designed to eliminate all cultural, language, and educational biases so everyone takes it on an equal playing field

Sterotype threat

is real and is a situational pressure or anxiety people feel when they are at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about their social group

Mental age

Alfred Binet invented it , and itmeasures a person's level of cognitive ability and emotional maturity