HDE 133 Midterm 1 Quizlet

Stress

the cognitive, emotional, psychological, and behavioral rxns the organism experiences w/ perceived threats & challenges

Stressor

the perceived challenge or threat; the physical/psychological thing causing the stress

Stressors can be positive or negative

Eustress vs Distress

Eustress

- positive form of stress (ex. first date, speeches, climbing a mountain)

- usually motivates you + has some personal growth aspect

Distress

- negative form of stress; upsetting, bad for health, not helping personal growth

Stressful life events

- BIG events, distinct, often impactful events that cause stress (ex. breakup, car acc, failing a class)

- Can be Eustress too (ex. baby, wedding, moving, promotion)

Hassles

- the irritants/pressures we experience on a daily basis

- traffic, misplacing things

Appraisals!!!

- An individual's subjective judgement of the significance of the event

- how a person perceived a challenge/threat

Categories of Stressors

Acute vs. Chronic Stressors

Acute

- short-term, single-event stressors

- occur in a time frame of secs, mins, hrs, days

ex. final exam, car accident, attack

Chronic

- long-term, many months/years

ex. poverty, pandemic

Categories of Stressors

Interpersonal vs. Non-Interpersonal Stressors

Interpersonal

- involve a relationship or an interaction w/ another person

ex. breakup, divorce, rejection

Non-Interpersonal

- don't involve another person directly

ex. natural disasters, car accidents (if the person was not actively trying to hit you)

How is stress measured?

studies can measure: the stressor and/or the indiv's stress (their response to the stressor)

Measuring STRESSORS (1)

Self-report:

- life stress inventories (checklist of stressful life events during a period)

- life stress interviews (asked abt occurrence of life events + descriptions)

Questionnaires to assess exposure to specific stressors:

- Self-report: you ask the participants themselves

- Parent report: asking the parent to report on the stressor

Objective Index:

- use data/records to measure/quantify stressors

- Poverty: calculated using state or federal poverty line

- Neighborhood Violence Exposure: quantify the # of reports in 1 neighborhood

Measuring STRESSORS (2)

Experimental Manipulation:

- Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) - in a lab, participants give a speech to researchers

Prospective vs Retrospective:

Pro - measure stressor @ beginning of study + follow participant to see response to stressor over time

Retro - ask participant to remember a stressor in the past

Measuring STRESS

Brain: fMRI (measuring how the brain reacts in response)

Hormones: cortisol reactivity (physiological response to stress)

Psychological Level (self-report):

- Perceived Stress Scale (PSS); participants rate current level of overall stress (subjective)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal

Thalamus

the brain's sensory control center

- receives sensory signals (ex. visual info from eyes)

- relays the info to other parts of brain that process visual info (ex. visual cortex)

Amygdala (left and right amygdala)

1) Detects things that are out of ordinary in our environment

- direct danger (snake)

- potential danger (a scared face)

- other people & their emotional expressions (salient negative & positive expressions)

2) Involved in activating stress response

- sends signals to hypothalamus & brain stem

***a major brain node involved in activating the stress response to potential threat

Hypothalamus

-regulation of body's systems (temp, metabolism, circadian rhythms, sleep, etc.)

-plays a role in activating the body's stress responses --> SAM axis and HPA axis

Brain Stem

Connects the brain and spinal cord,

- Helps control physiological response, controls breathing, heart pumping

Brain Pathway

sensory info regarding potential threat -> thalamus -> visual cortex -> amygdala

| \

| \

V V

Hypothalamus --> Brain Stem

Prefrontal Cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language, conscious control of thoughts, emotions, behaviors

- will send signals to amygdala to increase/decrease activity

- psychological stressors

(+) stress response if thinking negatively about something in the future

(-) stress response if thinking positively, thinking you're prepared, etc.

Nervous System

Central and Peripheral

Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic: sends nerves to voluntary muscles of the body (arms, legs, voluntary moves)

Autonomic side: sends nerves to + regulates unconscious bodily functions body does automatically (breathing, heart beating)

sympathetic --> controls "fight or flight"

parasympathetic --> controls "rest and digest"

Fight or Flight on Cardiovascular System

heart & blood vessels

- increased heart rate + BP

*goal is to push oxygenated blood to your legs + brain

Fight or Flight on Respiratory System

breathing/lungs

- increased breath rate

*airways dilate, allowing to take in more oxygen

Fight or Flight on Dermal System

skin

- skin sweats to cool down body to prevent overheating when dealing w/ physical threats

Fight or Flight on GI System

stomach and intestines

- gets inhibited!!

- stomachache + butterflies in stomach

*digestion is slowed to save resources for fighting (energy)

can both the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems be activated at once?

NO, when one is activated, the other is inhibited

norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal

- has stronger effects in increasing BP to get oxygenated blood faster to organs needed

epinephrine

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline.

Prenatal Stress

Stress the mother is experiencing

- can expose fetus to stress hormone

Measures of Prenatal Stress

Stressors:

- stressful life events: interviews or questionnaires

- studying cohorts exposed to specific stressor (ex. natural disaster)

Stress:

- cortisol levels, self-report on anxiety, etc.

Effects of prenatal stress

depend on - type & severity of stressor + timing

birth complications (increases probability of them):

1) shorter gestational length

2) low birth weight

3) increased risk of miscarriage

emotional/behavioral outcome:

1) more difficult temperament, negative affect, crying in infancy

2) higher anxiety in childhood

3) more behavioral problems in childhood

cognitive and motor development:

1) lower motor development in infancy --> sit up, crawl, grasp

2) lower cognitive development, such as development of attention regulation (difficulty focusing their attention)

psychiatric or neurodevelopmental disorders:

1) increased risk of ADHD in childhood

2) increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders - ASD & schizophrenia

3) mood disorders like major depression & anxiety disorders

Timing of Prenatal Stress

Fetal programming hypothesis

- stressors occurring during critical periods of brain development may lead to permanent changes in brain devel& risk for long-term health outcomes

- can lead to neurodevelopmental outcomes (ASD, schizo)

Mechanisms of Prenatal Stress

1) reduces blood flow to the fetus

- the activation of SAM and HPA Axis push blood to flow to limbs/brain and increase BP, sending oxy blood away from stomach/fetus who needs oxy blood for cellular processes

2) HPA Axis & Cortisol

risk of premies: increased CRH due to stress = increased risk of labor starting earlier

fetal brain devel: higher maternal cortisol = more placenta is producing cortisol/CRH

-cortisol is neurotoxic at high levels; can disrupt growth of neurons/synaptic connections

STUDIES: on prenatal stress

1) looked @ association b/t storm exposure and risk of ASD in childhood

- autism prevalence was higher when storm occurred during periods of neuron/synapse connections

2) women who were pregnant during an earthquake in chile

-related to weeks of gestation

-during month 3 associated w/ shorter gestation

Early childhood as time of sensitivity

early childhood = sensitive period which is critical in shaping brain structure & function

-overproduce neurons + synaptic connections

- synapses that r needed r strengthened, not used frequently die off

* there is synaptic plasticity in adulthood!

Supportive + Nurturing Caregivers

- key to healthy development

- nurturing, stable, engaging

- primary context of child development: parent-child relationships

- teach children how to cope with their emotions (regulation)

Tolerable vs. Toxic Stress

Tolerable: serious, temporary stress response W/ SUPPORTIVE BUFFER (caregiver) to calm & reduce stress response

-teach lifelong problem solving/coping skills

Toxic: stress w/o adult buffer

- activates continuous stress response

- instills learned helplessness & poor coping skills

ACEs

Adverse Childhood Experiences:

-abuse

-neglect

-household dysfunction

STUDIES: effects of ACEs on child MH

1) study on children b/t 1.5-5 yrs old: higher ACE count = increased outcome of having a MH problem

2) longitudinal study on ACEs and child MH/behavioral probs (3 yrs old):

- @ 5 yrs old, higher amount of child MH symptoms

ON EXAM: limitations to totaling up the # of ACEs

-researchers argue that diff types of ACEs may have diff impacts on development (not all ACEs are the same)

ACEs and Adult Health Outcomes

- risk of alcohol abuse

- depressive disorders

- worse physical health

- premature mortality

Typical pubertal development

- hormonal changes start as early as 6-9 yrs old, outward physical changes visible ~ 8-12 yrs old

-usually complete ~ 16/17

***girls are 1-2 yrs more advanced in pubertal development

Hormone Changes linked to puberty

1) secretion of growth hormone causes growth spurt during puberty

2) ADRENARCHE - involved HPA Axis

- causes devel of pubic hair, armpit hair, acne during puberty

3) GONADARCHE - involves HPG Axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal)

Male: testes

-development of penis, pubic hair, & testes in males

- 11-13

Female: ovaries

- development of breasts, ovaries, & uterus

- 10-11

Stress' influence on puberty

several forms of adversity linked to earlier timing of pubertal development, especially in girls

-family stress/conflict

-child abuse (sexual & physical)

-frequent house moving/housing instability

-early life exposure to threat

-trauma

Puberty and Biological reactivity to Stress

puberty --> increased in HPA Axis reactivity to stress

Study: more advanced pubertal development = stronger cortisol response in TSST

stress --> earlier pubertal development

pubertal development --> increased biological reactivity to stress

Stress & MH

exposure to a range of stressors --> increased risk of developing range of MH probs

2 Most Common types of MH problems associated w/ exposure to stress:

-Major Depression

-Anxiety

Prevalence of depression and anxiety increases during adolescence

POTENTIAL REASONS FOR THE INCREASES

1) adolescence = a time w/ increased # of stressors compared to childhood:

1) parent/child conflict

2) peer conflict/bullying

3) academic difficulties & pressure to succeed

4) romantic relationships, rejection, & breakups

5) seeking more independence, outside of home = risk of exposures to out of home stressors

2) stress leads to earlier pubertal development

3) pubertal development

- shown to make HPA Axis more reactive to stress

- releasing more cortisol than other children

Reasons for prevalence of MD and Anxiety in adolescence?

increased exposure to stressors + biological changes

Allostatic Load

physical wear & tear on the body due to chronic or repeated activation of the stress response

- if we activate the SAM & HPA Axis repeatedly on a regular basis, may start to WEAR DOWN THE BODY

Allostatic Load on cardiovascular/metabolic system

problems associated w/ chronic activity/inactivity

Cardio- hypertension, potential for stroke, MI (heart attack)

Metabolic- obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis

Risks that increase cardiovascular disease

exposure to diff forms of chronic stress linked to higher risk for cardiovascular disease:

-poverty/low SES

-childhood maltreatment

-job stress

neighborhood violent crime & unemployment

How does chronic stress increase risk for cardiovascular disease?

1) Biological Factors

- Atherosclerosis: narrowing of blood flow through the arteries due to formation of plaques

2) Lifestyle Factors

- Chronic stress increases risk of lifestyle factors that increase risk of cardiovascular disease

Ex. smoking, lack of activity, drinking high levels of alcohol

Studies show: increased risk of bad lifestyle choices + risk for heart attack based on the risk factors (hypertension, diabetes, smoking, obesity, psychosocial factors)

Stress & Hippocampus Volume

exposure to various stressors --> reduced hippocampus volume due to neurotoxic effects of cortisol

Stressors:

-childhood maltreatment

-poverty/low SES

-combat/war exposure

Studies show: participants w/ higher amounts of childhood maltreatment on avg have smaller hippocampus volume as adults

Stress & Prefrontal Cortex Volume

chronic stress (childhood maltreatment & poverty) associated w/ reduced prefrontal cortex volume & activity in adulthood

***Effects of stress on brain in adulthood

chronic stress --> reduced hippocampal volume

chronic stress --> reduced prefrontal cortex volume

neurons/synaptic connections being removed by neurotoxic cortisol

EFFECTS

Smaller hippcampus volume:

-difficulty regulating HPA Axis/turning off stress response

smaller prefrontal cortex:

-diff regulating emotions/stress response

-conscious control of thoughts, emotions, behavior

potential emotional/cognitive effects:

1) difficulty regulating emotions or stress response

2) overactive emotional responses (associated w/ anxiety & depression)

Positive

adult brain continues to be plastic, can change structure/functions of these brain regions

-can regrow neurons in areas like the hippocampus

Effects of stress on aging

Stress & dementia/alzheimer's disease

-stress in early childhood/adulthood linked to increased risk

-higher cortisol levels also associated w/ increased risk

--> prefrontal: thoughts, planning

--> Hippo: memory, shrinking=risk for memory probs + dementia

Telomeres

structure at tips of chromosomes that protect DNA

-telomeres shorten when cells divide, normal in aging

--> stress speeds up process of shortening telomeres = speeds aging

Chronic Adversity: Discrimination

Prejudice = negative attitudes & beliefs abt a group

Discrimination = behaviors motivated by prejudice; result in unfair treatment of members of a group

--> individual (one-on-one/social interactions)

--> institutional (practices/policies within an institution)

--> structural (policies, laws, structures more broadly)

Discrimination, stress, & health

- amygdala becomes more reactive over time, picks up little things

-stress is what contributes to disparities in health/MH outcomes b/t Black + white

Discrimination Studies

Allostatic Load: higher allostatic load if they had less emotional support related to perceived racial discrimination

Stress Response: higher rates of ethnic discrimination = high cortisol levels

Intergenerational Transmission: mothers w/ higher discrimination exposure during pregnancy --> babies had higher cortisol response to 1st vaccinations

Poverty

-living below the federal poverty line

-participants in poverty recruited from: programs like Section 5 Housing, Headstart

-participants in middle class recruited from public school districts

Stressors:

1) exposure to violence

2) family turmoil

3) parent-child separation

4) housing quality

5) noise

6) crowding in home

Results:

Poverty-level participants = multiple different stressors

-combined stressors that accumulate & activate stress system

-children had higher resting BP, higher cortisol and epinephrine at rest

-early sign of allostatic load or stress system is starting to become dysregulated

Middle Class = 0-1 stressors