Pysch 101 Estrada - University of Rochester - Exam 1

Psychology

Study of Behavior and Mind

Behavior

Observable Actions

Mind

Subjective Experiences

Experimental Psychologist

Conducts studies to further test theories in the field

Applied Psychologist

Applies theories to solve real world problems

Psychiatrist

An MD who specializes in the treatment of mental disorders using medication and talk therapy

Clinical Psychologist

A PhD or PsyD who treats patients with mental disorders using a variety of therapies

Counseling Psychologist

PhD/ED/Masters who historically used vocational guidance but is now more similar to a clinical psychologist

School Psychologist

Focuses on education, how to teach and school envireonments

Sport Psychologist

Focuses on teams, motivation, coach interactions and rehabilitation

Cognitive Psychologist

Focuses on how we process info, how we think about our environment and judgements

Developmental Psychologist

Focuses on how thoughts/behavior develop from birth to death

Industrial/organizational psychologist

Focuses on work setting, morale and leadership

Learning and Memory Psychologist

Focuses on conditioning (reward and punishment system), animal work and memory processes

Psychobiologist

Focuses how the brain and body work together to function (with more of a focus on the brain)

Quantitative Psychologist

Uses mathematical theories of thought and behavior, and statistics

Social Psychology

Focuses on relationships, stereotypes & prejudices, attitudes, groups, self

Marketing/Consumer behavior Psychologist

Focuses on brand loyalty, how people make purchasing options and decision choice

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe that one would have foreseen an event that has already occurred - leads to overconfidence

Case Study

An in depth examination of one individual. Doesn't allow for development of principles that apply to the general population

Nature Vs Nurture

Case study of the Jim Twins - Identical twins separated for many years - had identical similarities in wife names and number of wives, oldest son name, dog name and job. However, there are many differences too - depends on how data is presented

Hypothesis

A testable relationship between 2 variables - can either be supported or disproved - if enough evidence builds up, it can become a theory

Theory

an organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena

Random Sample

Each person in a population has an equally likely chance of being selected to participate in a study

Theory testing

1. Find a theory to test

2. Make a prediction

3. Do research to test the theory

4. Confirm or deny the prediction

5. Add or take away confidence in theory

Research Methods

Observational, Correlational, Experimental

Observational Research

Focus on description

Observe people in the environment and record their behavior

Pro: Good place to start

Cons: Hard to quantify measurements, hard to implement, bias

Correlational Research

Focus on prediction

Observe the relationship between 2 or more variables

Pros: Can study otherwise unethical/impossible studies, it's efficient - allows for more cases to be studied

Cons: Cannot determine causality

Correlation Coefficient

Statistic that indicates the degree of relationship between 2 variables

Correlation ≠ Causation

Experimental Research

Focus on causation

Requires manipulation of independent variable to test the effect on a dependent variable, using randomly assigned participants

Pros: Establishes causality

Cons: Can be sources of bias (?)

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment

Dependent Variable

The variable that is effected by the manipulation of the independent variable - measuring effects on this variable

Internal Validity

the degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not confounds

External Validity

The degree to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

Field Experiment

An experiment that is conducted in a natural setting

High external validity

Low internal validity

Laboratory Experiment

An experiment done in an artificial setting under tight control

Low external validity

High internal validity

Correlational vs. Experimental

Correlational - high external validity, IVs vary naturally, no random assignment and cannot test causality

Experimental - high internal validity, IVs manipulated by experimenter, need random assignment, tests causality

Experimenter Bias

Subtle cues from the researcher that can influence the behavior of the participant

Use blind research assistant and keep methods consistant

Subject Bias

Knowing one is being studied may alter their behavior

Use unobtrusive methods and don't explain the goal or hypothesis of the experiment

American Psychological Association Ethics

1. Informed Consent

2. Debrief

3. Weigh the costs and benefits of research

Tuskgee

Researchers wanted to know about the effects of syphillis when untreated - lured poor black men into study with an offer they couldn't refuse - the men they were looking at had untreated syphillis but researchers called it "bad blood" - Later, a cure was discovered but researchers didn't tell the patients

This led to the ethical issues of the APA to be created

Biological Psychology

Study of the brain and nervous system and how they relate to behavior and mental processes

Brain effects behavior - Case Study

Man who lost frontal lobe from an accident with a pole had changes in behavior, such as irritability, lack of ability to plan and became demanding

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Nervous System

Electrochemical communication network that connects the brain and the spinal cord to the rest of the body - 2 sub sections

Central Nervous System

Brain and Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System

The nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body - 2 subsections

Somatic Nervous System

Transmits signals from sensory organs to the CNS, which signals to muscles to move - voluntary motion

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary bodily processes such as heart rate and breathing - 2 subsections

Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares body for stress and action - Fight or Flight

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms body and helps conserve energy

Fight or Flight

a reaction caused by adrenaline that prepares one to either fight the stressor or take flight and escape.

The body turns off unnecessary processes like digestion to conserve energy - Heart rate increases to get more oxygen flowing to body and muscles, pupils dilate to let in more light

Epinephrine (adrenaline) production increases

Neurons

Responsible for sending signals through the nervous systems

Made up of Cell bodies, Axons, Dendrites, Myelin sheaths, Terminal Branches and Glial Cells

3 types of nerves - Sensory, motor and interneuron

Cell Body

Contains the nucleus of the nerve

Dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

Passes messages to terminal branches

Myelin sheaths

A fatty substance that coats the axon which increases the transmission speed of signals

Terminal Branches

Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons via neurotransmitters

Glial Cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that receive information from sensory organs - send signals to the CNS

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands

Interneurons

Connects sensory and motor neurons - allows for sensory neurons to send signals directly to the motor neurons - creates reflex

ALS - Disease

Progressive degenerative and death of motor neurons in voluntary muscles - leads to paralysis

Also called Lou Gherig's Disease

Action Potential

A neural impulse sent by sensory nerves - All or nothing -

Resting potential is negative inside and positive outside.

When the neuorn fires, channels open and negative K ions leak out and positive Na ions leak in - causes depolarization of neuron that causes the next set of channels to open

Reset by proton pumps restoring the resting potential

The strength of a stimuli doesn't affect the speed of the neuron

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers in the terminal branch of a neuron that are released when triggered by an action potential

They cross a gap between the terminal branch and then dendrites of the next neuron where they bind to receptors on the receiving nerve.

The excess NTs are either broken down or reuptaken by sending neuron

Acetylcholine

The most common NT - allows for movement

A release contracts muscle, while a blockage of it restrains the muscle. An undersupply will lead to Alzheimer's

Antagonist - Botox

Dopamine

NT that influences mood, voluntary experience control and rewards center.

An oversupply leads to Schizophrenia, while an undersupply will lead to Parkinson's

Serotonin

NT that acts as a mood regulator. It controls eating, sleeping, arousal and pain.

Targeted by many antidepressants

The 7 deadly sins NT

Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA)

NT that inhibits neurons from generating Action Potentials, facilitates sleep, and lowers arousal of NTs by binding to receptors which causes an influx of - chloride ions into the cell. This raises the threshold of an action potential, making it harder to start one.

Antagonist - Xanax

Hindbrain

Oldest part of the brain - responsible for basic survival

Brain Stem - Medulla and Pons

Performs functions without conscious control:

Control breathing, Heart rate, Sleep and Wakefulness, Salivating, Vomiting

(Hindbrain)

Cerebellum

Specializes in coordination and timing of movement, involved with balance and learning of new motor skills

(Hindbrain)

Midbrain

A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it between sensory and motor areas

Contains many neurons with dense dopamine receptors and activity

Forebrain

The most visibly obvious part of the brain

Processes emotion, memory, thinking and reasoning

Basal Ganglia

Facilitates planned voluntary motion and processing of rewards. Substructure - Nucleus Accumbens

(Forebrain)

Nucleus Accumbens

A subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction

Drugs that have the potential to be abused affect this site

Limbic System

A neural network located below the cerebral hemispheres; involved with emotions and memory

Made up of several structures: Amygdala, Hippocampus, Thalamus, Hypothalamus

(Forebrain)

Amygdala

Facilitates memory formation for emotional events, fear responses and recognizing and interpreting facial expressions

(Forebrain)

Hippocampus

Responsible for formation of new memories

(Forebrain)

Thalamus

Regulates sensory information to different areas - serves as a relay station

(Forebrain)

Hypothalamus

Serves to regulate body temperature and drives (sex, hunger and thirst) in conjunction with the endocrine system by stimulating pituitary gland

(Forebrain)

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands and hormone production

Hormone

A chemical messenger secreted by the endocrine system into the bloodstream. They help with homeostasis

Adrenal Gland

Produces Hormones: Epinephrine, Corticosteroids, and Norepinephrine - Hormones responsible for Fight or Flight

Cortisol and Epinephrine/Adrenaline

Stimulated by adrenal gland for Fight or Flight

Increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar for a surge of energy

Endorphins

Produced in pituitary gland and hypothalamus. Responsible for pain reduction and increased arousal

Antagonist - Morphine

Testosterone

Used for physical and sexual development, more prominently in males. Levels increase during threat and sexual activity. Higher levels of testosterone are correlated with aggression

White Matter

myelinated axons

(Cerebral Cortex)

Gray Matter

cell bodies

(Cerebral Cortex)

Ventricles

Spinal Fluid

(Cerebral Cortex)

Cerebral Cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Each hemisphere processes information from the opposite side of the body

Has 4 substructures - Frontal lobes, Parietal Lobes, Occipital Lobes, Temporal Lobes

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for planning, impulse and emotion, language production and voluntary movement

Has 2 subsections - Broca's Area and Primary Motor Cortex

(Cerebral Cortex)

Broca's Area

Left Hemisphere - Frontal Lobe - Responsible for speech generation and articulation of spoken words

Damage results in difficulty speaking and making frequent grammatical errors

(Cerebral Cortex)

Motor Cortex

Right hemisphere of Frontal Lobe - An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

(Cerebral Cortex)

Parietal Lobe

Involves in experience of touch and bodily awareness, as well as performing mathematical and visio-spatial tasks

2 substructures - Wernicke's area and Somatosenory area

(Cerebral Cortex)

Wernicke's Area

Left Hemisphere - Temporal Lobe - Responsible for language comprehension and associating words with meaning

Damage results in fluid nonsensical speech devoid of meaning

(Cerebral Cortex)

Somatosensory Area

Left Hemisphere of Parietal Lobe - Interprets sensory signals from the environment - Largest association with mouth (Cerebral Cortex)

Occipital Lobe

Connected to the visual cortex and responsible for processing visual information. Connected directly to eyes via optic nerve

(Cerebral Cortex)

Corpus Callosum

Thick bundle of neural fibers connecting and carrying messages between the left and right sides of the brain

Cutting can result in prevention of seizures but also in Split Brain patients

(Cerebral Cortex)

Localization of Function

Left Hemisphere vs Right Hemisphere