psych unit 2 part 1

Perception

The brain's organization and interpretation of sensory input to make meaning of the environment.

Bottom-up processing

Perception built from incoming sensory details; begins with the stimulus rather than expectations.

Top-down processing

Interpreting sensory input using prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations.

Schema

An existing mental framework used to organize and interpret information.

Perceptual set

A tendency to interpret sensory information in a particular way based on expectations and experience.

Context in perception

Surroundings or circumstances that influence how a stimulus is interpreted.

Past experiences in perception

Previous learning and encounters that shape expectations, schemas, and interpretation.

Cultural experiences in perception

Shared customs and beliefs that influence expectations and interpretations of sensory information.

Gestalt psychology

The approach that we perceive organized wholes, not just isolated sensory parts.

Attention

Selective concentration on some information while ignoring other information.

Closure

Gestalt principle: mentally fill in gaps to perceive an incomplete shape as a whole.

Figure-ground

Gestalt principle: distinguish the main object of attention from its background.

Proximity

Gestalt principle: see objects near each other as belonging together.

Similarity

Gestalt principle: group objects that look alike in color, size, or shape.

Selective attention

Focus conscious awareness on one stimulus while filtering competing stimuli.

Cocktail party effect

Ability to focus on one conversation amid other sounds.

Change blindness

Failure to notice a visual change when attention is directed elsewhere.

Binocular depth cues

Depth information requiring both eyes.

Retinal disparity

Different images received by each eye; greater disparity generally signals a closer object.

Convergence

Inward turning of both eyes to focus on a nearby object; more turning signals closeness.

Monocular depth cues

Depth information available with just one eye.

Relative clarity

Clear, sharp objects seem nearer; hazy objects seem farther away.

Relative size

Of objects assumed equal in actual size, the one with the smaller retinal image appears farther away.

Texture gradient

Nearby surfaces show more detailed texture; distant surfaces appear smoother or denser.

Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, providing a depth cue.

Interposition (overlap)

An object blocking part of another is perceived as closer than the blocked object.

Perceptual constancy

Perceiving an object's properties as stable despite changes in sensory input.

Size constancy

Perceiving an object's size as unchanged even as its retinal image shrinks with distance.

Shape constancy

Perceiving the same shape despite changes in viewing angle.

Color constancy

Perceiving an object's color as stable under different lighting.

Apparent movement

Perceived motion created by stationary images or lights shown in a sequence.

Phi phenomenon

Illusion of movement when adjacent lights blink on and off in succession.

Beta movement

Illusion of continuous movement produced by rapidly presented still pictures.

Concept

Mental category that groups related objects, events, or ideas.

Prototype

Best or most typical mental example of a category.

Assimilation

Fit new information into an existing schema without changing the schema.

Accommodation

Modify an existing schema or make a new one when new information does not fit.

Algorithm

Step-by-step problem-solving procedure that gives a correct solution if correctly applied.

Heuristic

Quick mental shortcut that saves effort but can cause errors.

Representativeness heuristic

Judge probability or category membership by similarity to a typical example or stereotype.

Availability heuristic

Judge likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.

Mental set

Persist in using a familiar problem-solving strategy even when a new approach may work better.

Priming

Earlier exposure activates related ideas and influences later perception or response.

Framing

The presentation or wording of equivalent information changes a decision.

Gambler's fallacy

Mistaken belief that a random event is due to reverse after a streak of independent outcomes.

Sunk-cost fallacy

Continuing a bad choice because of resources already spent and impossible to recover.

Executive functions

Higher-level control processes such as planning, attention, inhibition, working memory, and flexibility; linked to prefrontal cortex.

Creativity

Producing ideas or solutions that are both novel and valuable.

Divergent thinking

Generate many possible or unusual solutions to a problem.

Convergent thinking

Narrow possibilities to the single best or correct solution.

Functional fixedness

Difficulty seeing a familiar object as useful for anything beyond its usual purpose.