APES unit 3 test

Genetic Diversity

Genetic variation among individuals in a population. Ex. skin color

Species Diversity

The number of different species in a region of habitat. Ex. Community

Habitat Diversity

The variety of habitats that exist within a given region. Ex. Minnesota

Habitat Loss

Loss of biodiversity

Specialists

Impacted 1st and most overall

Generalist

Less impacted

Richness

How many different species there are.

Evenness

Abundance of individuals.

Species Diversity

Species richness and evenness.

How do you calculate species diversity?

Shannon’s Index (H). Total number of species in a community (n) and, for each species, the number of individuals there that represent that species (pi).

High and Low Richness

High- many different types of organisms. Low- small amount of different species.

High and Low Evenness

High- spread out fairly equally. Low- one or a few species make up most of the population.

High and Low Species Diversity

High- more stable community. Low- fragile or sensitive community.

Richness vs Evenness

Richness- an approximate sense of the biodiversity of a particular place. Evenness- the relative proportion of individuals within the different species in a location. Both- make up species diversity.

Habitat Loss

The primary cause of habitat loss is human development that removes natural habitats and replaces them with homes, Industries, agricultural fields, malls, and roads.

Example of Habitat Loss

Northern spotted owls lived in a very forested area and the trees were cut down for housing.

Strategies to Combat Habitat Loss

Protect their habitats, restore destroyed habitats.

Exotic and Invasive Species

Species that live outside their historical range.

Example of Exotic and Invasive Species

Honey bees were introduced to North America in the 1600s to provide a source of honey for European colonists.

Strategies to Combat Exotic and Invasive Species

Prevent them from moving, early detection of the species.

Overharvesting

When individuals are removed at a rate faster than the population can replace them.

Example of Overharvesting

Hunting, fishing, and other forms of harvesting are the most direct human influences on wild populations of plants and animals.

Strategies to Combat Overharvesting

Regulations, economic incentives, technological innovations.

Pollution

Threats to biodiversity come from toxic contaminants such as pesticides, heavy metals, acids, and oil spills.

Example of Pollution

An oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico exploded causing a massive release of oil that lasted for several months.

Strategies to Combat Pollution

Action at personal, community, and industrial levels.

Climate Change

The primary concern about climate change is its effect on patterns of temperature and precipitation in different regions of the world.

Examples of Climate Change

Climate change, which is expected by scientists to happen in the next 70 years, will trap a plant species on a southwestern Australian Peninsula because they cannot migrate across the harsh surrounding desert.

Strategies to Combat Climate Change

Cut greenhouse gas emissions, protect natural ecosystems, adapt to changing conditions.

Bottleneck Effect

A sharp decline in population size from events like natural disasters or overhunting, which severely reduces genetic diversity and increases the risk of inbreeding or extinction.

Short/Fast Disturbances

Fire, hurricane, avalanche, tornado.

Long/slow Disturbances

Climate Change

Periodic

A change that happens at a regular interval.

Episodic

A change that happens at an irregular interval.

Random

No pattern, totally random, an event that may or may not happen again.

Periodic Example

Seasons changing, rainy season.

Episodic Example

ENSO, wildfire, hurricane.

Random Example

Cosmic impact, volcanic eruption, earthquake.

Climate have changed due to

Plate tectonics, Earth’s orbit, ocean currents, composition of the atmosphere.

More ice=Lower seas=More terrestrial habitat

Less ice=Higher seas=More marine habitat

Species have 3 options

Adapt, migrate, die.

Primary Succession

Begins with bare rock and no soil. Ex. Newly exposed rock, cooled lava, abandoned parking lot.

Secondary Succession

Begins after disturbance but soil is mostly intact. Ex. Hurricane, forest fire, abandoned farm field.

Pioneer Species

Fast growing organisms that are first to colonize areas damaged by a disturbance.

Climax Community

When plants, animals, and fungi reach a stable state after a succession.

Keystone Species

An organism that has a disproportionate effect on species.

Indicator Species

Give early warning sign of damage or danger.

How ecosystems can be disturbed naturally

Hurricanes, ice storms, tsunamis.

What is the difference between resistance and resilience in an ecosystem?

Resistance is a measure of how much a disturbance can affect flows of energy and matter in an ecosystem. Resilience is the rate at which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disturbance.

Characteristics of Resilient Ecosystem

The flows of energy and matter might return to normal in the following year.

How does intermediate levels of disturbance favor species diversity?

At intermediate level of disturbance, many more species are capable of persisting.

Island Biography

A theory that demonstrates the dual importance of habitat size and distance in determining species richness.

Larger islands typically contain more diversity

Larger habitats are easier for dispersing species to find, support larger populations with lower extinction risk, and offer a wider range of environmental conditions.

The greater the distance between the continent and the island the less diversity

If two islands are the same size and contain the same resources, the newer island should accumulate more species than the farther Island because it has a high rate of immigration by new species.

Many island species have evolved to be specialists vs generalists because of limited resources. How does this impact their survival if an invasive species is introduced?

This could severely threaten the survival of island specialists, making them highly vulnerable to population decline and extinction.

How does the idea of island biography connect to conservation?

If we wish to set aside natural habitat for a given species or a group of species, we need to consider both the size of the protected area and the distance between the protected area and other areas that could provide colonists.

Key ideas of Darwin’s theory of natural selection

Individuals produce an excess of Offspring. Not all offspring can survive. Individuals differ in their traits. Differences in traits can be passed on from parents to Offspring. Differences in traits are associated with differences in the ability to survive and reproduce.

Fitness

An individual’s ability to survive and reproduce.

Adaptations

A trait that improves an individual’s fitness.

How do sudden and gradual changes affect the ability of the species to adapt?

sudden changes happen too fast for evolution, forcing the species to use their existing traits causing a high risk of extinction. Gradual change give species time to change and adapt leading to high adaptation success. Adaptations cannot be experienced at the individual level.

Ecosystem Tolerance

The limits to the abiotic conditions that a species can tolerate.

Examples of Environmental Conditions.

Extremes of temperatures, humidity, salinity, PH.

Why is it important to have a high genetic diversity?

High genetic diversity ensures that a wider range of genotypes is present, which reduces the probability that an offspring will receive the same harmful mutations from both parents.

Factors that might lead to species becoming threatened with extinction.

Inbreeding, habitat loss, fertilizers/pollution.

Why we should maintain genetic diversity among our domesticated species of crops and livestock.

To make sure they are able to survive harsh conditions for food security and so disease won’t kill them all.

Organisms that are most likely to be a species of least concern.

Species that are widespread and abundant.

Strategies to protect animal and plant populations.

Make protected areas, wildlife corridors, conservation laws, and ecological restoration.

Five main causes of extinction.

Climate change, agriculture, wildlife crime, pollution, disease.

Ways to protect endangered species.

Criminalize poaching, protect habitats, legislation.

Endangered Species Act 1973

Conserve and protect endangered and threatened species and their habitat, provide states financial assistance and incentives to develop and maintain conservation programs.

Compare and contrast native and exotic species.

Native species are species who have lived in one area for thousands or millions of years also that live in their historical range. Exotic species are species that live outside of their historical range also known as alien species.

Why are all exotic species not invasive species?

The species may not be able to adapt or the population is kept under control by the native animals in that area.

Exotic species can sometimes be beneficial but when are they considered invasive?

When it starts to spread rapidly across large areas and cause harm.

Why might an invasive species outcompete a native species?

The invasive species could gain a big biological and environmental advantage in the new habitat.

3 characteristics of invasive species.

Non-native origin, rapid reproduction and growth, ecological or economic harm.

3 problems of invasive species.

Outcompete native species, loss of native biodiversity, habitat destruction.

3 strategies to combat invasive species.

Inspection of goods, no wooden packing crates, introduce predators.

What is the difference between intrinsic value and instrumental value?

Intrinsic is a value independent of any benefit to humans. Instrumental is worth as an instrument or a tool that can be used to accomplish a goal.

Provisions

A good that humans can use directly.

Examples of Provisions

Lumber, food crops, medicinal plants, natural rubber, and furs.

Regulating Service

Natural ecosystems help to regulate environmental conditions.

Examples of Regulating Service

Humans add about 8 gigatons of carbon to the atmosphere, natural ecosystems like rainforests and oceans remove some so that only about 4 gigatons of carbon remain there.

Support Systems

Natural ecosystems provide numerous support services that would be extremely costly for humans to generate.

Examples of Support Systems

Pollination of food crops.

Cultural Service

Ecosystems provide cultural or aesthetic benefits to many people.

Examples of Cultural Service

Peaceful beauty of a mountain range.

What is the economic value of ecosystem services?

Over $125 trillion per year.

Ecological pros of preserving marine biodiversity.

Keeps ocean food chains balanced, protects animals from extinction, helps keep ocean ecosystems healthy.

Ecological cons of preserving marine biodiversity.

More competition for food and space, some animal populations may grow too much, protecting certain species can affect other species.

Economic pros of preserving marine biodiversity.

Helps fishing Industries by keeping fish populations healthy, creates jobs in tourism and conservation, and protects seafood resources for the future.

Economic cons of preserving marine biodiversity.

Protecting ocean areas can cost a lot of money, fishing businesses may lose money from restrictions, conservation programs can be expensive to maintain.

Examples of Cultural

Ecotourism, aesthetic, inspirational, spiritual/religious, educational, recreation, stewardship.

Examples of Regulating

Climate regulation, disease + pest regulation, flood control, air purification, water purification, erosion control.

Examples of Provisioning

Food production, water, fuel, wood + fiber.

Examples of Supporting

Pollination, biodiversity, nutrient cycling, habitat provision, soil formation, primary production, decomposition.