Ancient History

Ahmose son of Ebana

Autobiography providing first-hand evidence of the war against the Hyksos, shows the siege of Avaris, mentions soldiers being rewarded for their service, and gives an account of campaigning in Syria-Palestine and Nubia.

Kamose Stela

Documents the struggle against the Hyksos, calls on Amun for victory, says Avaris was wealthy and international, and shows Kamose's motive of reuniting Egypt.

Avaris

Archaeological site of the Hyksos capital which gives evidence of foreign culture and technology.

Ahmose Pen Nekhbet

Autobiography of a soldier; supports further campaigning in Palestine and Nubia.

Abydos Donation Stela of Ahmose

Records Ahmose’s decision to honour Tetisheri with a pyramid and chapel, showing her importance to dynastic memory and legitimacy.

Karnak Stela of Ahmose

Praises Ahhotep as one who united Egypt, pacified Upper Egypt, and put down rebels, which reinforces political authority during the Hyksos war.

Buhen doorway inscription

Links Ahhotep’s name with Ahmose, suggesting close political association.

Ahhotep’s funerary goods

Axe, dagger, and jewellery that suggest military honour, elite status, and royal prestige.

Karnak donation Stela

Shows Ahmose Nefertari as God's Wife of Amun.

Temple of Karnak

Complex dedicated to Amun-Ra which provides evidence of massive building programs and wealth.

Festival of Opet and Beautiful Festival of the Valley

Shows public processions and the link between Amun and the afterlife.

Annals of Thutmose III

Records 17+ campaigns, military victories, the Battle of Megiddo, tribute from vassal states dedicated to Amun, and imperial control by taking sons of vassal princes to Egypt for pro-Egyptian propaganda.

Amun priesthood titles

Titles such as “First prophet of Amun” show the high status and influence of the priesthood.

Dream Stela of Thutmose IV

Records Amun-Ra promising kingship in return for the restoration of the Sphinx.

Nubian fort

Shows Egyptian control over Nubia and provides evidence of imperial control and frontier power.

Amada Stela

Records Amenhotep II killing seven princes and hanging them from his boat.

Tomb of Rekhmire

Main source for the duties of a vizier (administration, taxation, justice, and ma'at) and shows Nubians and Asiatic people bringing tribute to Egypt.

Tomb of Paheri

Reveals the role of the nomarch in taxation, justice, and local courts.

Tomb of Huy

Evidence for the administration of Nubia and imperial control.

Tomb of Amenemhab

Records how Thutmose III rewarded soldiers for bravery and service.

Tombos Stela

Thutmose I's victory over Nubia which shows southern expansion.

Gebel Barkal

Building dedicated to Amun which shows Egyptian presence in Nubia.

Konosso Inscription

Records the suppression of revolts in Nubia during the reign of Thutmose IV.

Amarna Letter

Diplomatic marriage alliance between Thutmose IV and a Mitanni princess.

Semna Stela

Records the Viceroy of Kush and Nubian administration.

Semna Temples

Shows the Egyptianisation of Nubia due to temples dedicated to Amun.

Hattusa tablets

Records sons and daughters of vassal princes being educated in Egypt, which shows political control.

Ineni inscriptions

Records how Hatshepsut governed as regent after Thutmose II's death.

Early regency reliefs

Hatshepsut shown behind Thutmose III.

Maat-Ka-Re

Hatshepsut's Pharaonic identity.

Divine Birth scene at Deir el Bahri

Shows Amun fathering Hatshepsut.

Coronation relief at Deir el Bahri

Thutmose I appoints Hatshepsut as successor.

Obelisks at Karnak

Hatshepsut links kingship and building to Amun, showing her devotion and the scale of resources under her reign.

Red Chapel

Oracle of Amun confirms Hatshepsut as queen by the divine choice of Amun, linking priesthood to divine selection and royal legitimacy.

Royal reliefs

Hatshepsut depicted in kingly poses, reinforcing Tefnin’s thesis.

Punt expedition reliefs

Shows the expedition to Punt (in honour of Amun), goods acquired like myrrh for temple rituals, proves she was a successful pharaoh, and shows officials managing administration.

Inscription of Ty

A general states “her arrows was among the northerners,” suggesting military activity in Syria-Palestine.

Speos Artemidos

Hatshepsut claims she restored temples (like Pakhet's), was chosen by Amun, created trade in the Sinai, and claims descent from Ahmose I, likening herself to a heroic saviour expelling Asiatics.

Hathor statue

Hatshepsut had a statue of Hathor at Deir el Bahri.

Anubis relief

Hatshepsut had a relief of Anubis at Deir el Bahri, reinforcing the importance of the funerary cult.

Senenmut statue with Neferure

Depicts the tutor and guardian of Hatshepsut’s daughter.

Hapuseneb tomb

High priest of Amun and vizier.

Steindorff and Seele

Historians who hold a hostile view that Hatshepsut was an evil stepmother who took power from Thutmose III.

Iranian Plateau

Key features include the Zagros and Alborz mountains (deserts, limited rainfall); water scarcity made irrigation difficult.

Significant Persian sites

Pasargadae, Susa, Persepolis, Naqsh-i Rustam, Behistun.

Behistun inscription and relief

Darius killing the imposter king, claiming royal legitimacy supported by Ahura Mazda as the divine source of kingship and justice.

Naqsh-i Rustam

Shows Darius being supported by different nations.

Susa Foundation Inscription

Records how Darius built Susa with the help of foreign workers and materials from different nations.

Apadana tribute reliefs

Shows how Xerxes had subject peoples bring tributes to him.

Fortification Tablets

Records satraps, workers, rations, building projects, non-royal women, the military reliance on Persian/Median troops, satrapy armies, and local cult offerings.

Treasury Tablets

Records the palace economy and payments for elite and royal women.

Herodotus

Records Persian inner/outer court laws, notes Atossa (linking Xerxes to Cyrus), mentions Darius creating darics and sigloi as currency, and records elite leisure like hunting.

Royal inscriptions and Persepolis reliefs

Reveal that women were largely absent from official propaganda.

Susa Glazed tile art

Provides a relief of the Immortals and other parts of the army such as archers.

Daiva inscription

Xerxes suppressed the worship of false gods in a conquered land in favour for worship of Ahruzmaza

Gadatas letters

records a letter from Darius to a satrap in which Darius berates him for taxing worshippers of a Greek religion and forcing them to do harsh labour work in uncomfortable conditions