sa 150 exam #1

What is a theory?

An explanation for some aspect of social life

Why do sociologists use theories?

To observe, explain, and understand the social world and how it can change

Why can different theories study the same issue?

Different theories can use different perspectives to explain the same social phenomenon

What shapes theories and research/

A researcher’s position and approach to a situation

What is the sociological imagination?

A way of connecting personal biography and experiences to broader history and society

What is a personal trouble?

A challenge experienced by an individual

What is a social issue?

A problem rooted in broader social structures and conditions

Why was Mills concerned that sociology had 'lost its way' after WWII?

Sociologists embraced grand theory and abstracted empiricism

What is abstracted empiricism?

Collecting data without placing it within social, historical, or political context

What is the sociological imagination (Mills, 1959)?

A way to connect personal troubles to broader social issues, understanding biography and history

What is the core idea of structural functionalism?

Stable institutions govern behavior and work together to promote order and consensus

How does structural functionalism explain social failures?

Failures occur when institutions fail to perform their roles effectively

What is the difference between manifest and latent functions?

Manifest = primary, easily identifiable intention of an institution

latent = supplementary, less noticeable functions

What is conflict theory mainly concerned with?

Unequal distributions of power and wealth among groups

What is historical materialism (Marx and Engels, 1848)?

The focus on the material needs of life (food, shelter, education) and unequal access to them as drivers of conflict and historical change

How does social class affect people?

It creates different levels of access to material resources

Why does society experience conflict according to conflict theory?

Groups struggle over limited resources, power, and wealth

Who developed classical conflict theory?

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

What did Marx argue shapes history?

The way societies organize the production of material goods

In Marx's theory, who are the bourgeoisie?

Owners of the means of production who seek profit, maximize worker effort, minimize pay, and retain surplus value

Who are the proletariat?

The working class who must sell their labor to meet material needs and are instrumental in creating surplus value

What is surplus value?

Value created by workers that is retained by the capitalist class as profit

How does Marx view capitalism?

Capitalism exploits human productive capacity by subordinating labour to survival

What is alienation according to Marx?

Workers become separated from the process and products of their labour

What is class consciousness, and what does it lead to?

Awareness of exploitation and commitment to better working conditions; informs unions, labor parties, and political organizing

How did Weber's view of conflict differ from Marx's?

Weber was inspired by Marx but also saw prestige (religion, nationality, politics, race, ethnicity) as important sources of conflict beyond class/economic power

What is predestination?

The Calvinist belief that certain people are fated for salvation/heaven

What is asceticism?

Hard work, frugality, discipline, and avoiding worldly indulgence, treated as signs of salvation

How did Protestant beliefs support capitalism?

They created an ideological framework encouraging disciplined work and capitalist expansion

What does symbolic interactionism focus on?

Meanings, interpretations, and definitions arising from micro-level interactions between people

What was Weber's argument in The Protestant Ethic?

Religious belief (Calvinism) provided an ideological basis that spurred early capitalist expansion

What does “micro-level” mean?

Small-scale interactions between individuals

What does 'the social construction of reality' claim?

Reality is created by society; our perceptions are shaped by subjective meanings, and there is no objective reality, only constant negotiation and redefinition

What does it mean to say reality is socially constructed?

What we see as “normal” or “real” is influenced by society, culture, and interaction

What are the three steps in Berger and Luckmann's (1966) process?

Externalization, objectivation, internalization

Express it → Society makes it “real” → We accept it as natural

What is externalization?

Expressing subjective ideas, beliefs, and practices to others

What is objectivation?

Ideas become objective-seeming values, such as laws, customs, norms, and language

What is internalization?

Social ideas become taken-for-granted and incorporated into our subconscious

What is the Thomas theorem (William Isaac Thomas)?

If people define social situations as real, they are real in their consequences

What does the Thomas theorem mean?

Our definitions of situations influence how we act, creating real-world consequences

Why are social constructions important?

They influence how people interpret situations and how they behave

What is feminist theory?

An approach rooted in conflict theory and examines sex, gender, power, inequality, and identity in social life

What does feminist theory reject?

Biological determinism as a justification for separate gender roles

What is biological determinism?

The belief that biological differences justify different social roles

How does feminist theory explain gender roles?

They are socially produced through history, culture, politics, institutions, and socialization

Can feminist theory apply beyond gender issues?

Yes. It can examine power, inequality, and identity across many social issues

Does feminism inherently oppose men or masculinity?

No. Feminist theory examines sexist inequality affecting people of all gender

How has feminism addressed rigid gender roles?

It has shown how rigid roles can constrain both women and men

What is the ultimate goal of feminist thought?

To highlight and disrupt sexist oppression and inequality

What is quantitative research?

Research relying on numerical values that can be measured and counted

What is quantitative research commonly used to examine?

The relationship between two or more variables

What type of reasoning does quantitative research use?

Deductive reasoning (top-down)

What is deductive reasoning?

Starting with a theory, developing a hypothesis, and testing it using data

What are examples of quantitative research methods?

Surveys, graphs, and mathematical models

Reliability vs. validity: which is which?

Reliability = can findings be replicated and stay consistent; Validity = do findings reflect real-world accuracy

What is qualitative research?

Non-numerical research used to explore and understand complex phenomena

What type of reasoning does qualitative research use?

Inductive reasoning (bottom-up)

What is inductive reasoning?

Developing new theory from patterns and observations in the data

Content analysis vs. discourse analysis?

Content analysis identifies the presence of words, themes, and concepts; discourse analysis examines the social context of the data

What is reflexivity?

Recognizing how our position and perspectives influence research

Why is reflexivity important in sociology?

Humans are subjective and influence what they study, notice, interpret, and communicate

What is subjectivity?

Personal perspectives, experiences, beliefs, and interpretations that influence how we understand things

Does reflexivity oppose objectivity?

No. Reflexivity helps achieve objectivity by acknowledging where we stand

What is “situated knowledge”?

Knowledge shaped by recognizing the researcher’s social position and perspective

What is culture?

A complex collection of values, beliefs, behaviors, and material objects shared by a group and passed down between generations

Is culture only related to ethnicity?

No. Culture includes our tastes, ideas, behaviors, techniques, and everyday practices

Why is everything cultural?

Our ideas, tastes, and behaviors develop within cultural contexts rather than in isolation

What is Swidler's (1986) 'culture as a toolkit' idea?

Culture shapes a repertoire of habits, skills, and styles from which people construct strategies of action

Name the six key points about culture.

Learned (not born with it), tangible or intangible, shared through interaction, transmitted across generations, cumulative (constantly refined), and contested (people derive different meanings)

Why is culture important?

It gives meaning to sensory experiences, provides an interpretive framework, fosters belonging or estrangement, guides interactions, and can increase or constrain freedom

What is ethnocentrism?

Valuing one's own ideas, values, norms, and practices over another's; 'we' are superior to 'them'

What can cause ethnocentrism?

It often results from a lack of understanding of other cultures, and the notes say we are all guilty of it

What is cultural relativism?

The opposite of ethnocentrism: all cultures have intrinsic value and deserve respect and dignity on their own terms

Subculture vs. counterculture?

Subculture shares elements of the parent culture but develops unique norms; counterculture rejects conventional norms and develops alternatives

What is the functionalist perspective on culture?

Culture transmits values across institutions, circulates symbolic meanings, and keeps society stable and together

Example of functionalist perspective on culture

valuing postsecondary education stems from the need for an educated workforce. Cultural objects serve as social markers (Veblen, 1899). If culture fails, people experience normlessness

Durkheim: mechanical vs. organic solidarity?

Mechanical = sameness in small, traditional societies; Organic = interdependence through division of labor

What is anomie?

A sense of normlessness when a standard set of values and norms is disrupted

What is the conflict perspective on culture?

Culture is a site of power, used to reproduce class differences; the dominant class manipulates tastes via dominant ideology (Adorno & Horkheimer, 1947: mass deception)

What is mass deception?

The idea that culture can be manipulated to influence people's beliefs and preferences

What is dominant ideology?

A system of beliefs that helps preserve the interests of the ruling class

How can dominant ideology appear in everyday life?

Through taken-for-granted assumptions about topics such as fitness and nutrition

What is the symbolic interactionist perspective on culture?

Culture stems from individual interactions; it is actively created and re-created through constant negotiation; words are symbols with varied meanings

Give an example of a cultural symbol with changing meaning

“LOL” can communicate different meanings depending on how and where it is used

How can language reinforce cultural expectations?

Words and labels can communicate ideas about appropriate roles and behaviors

What is the feminist perspective on culture, and what is interpellation?

Focuses on gender socialization; interpellation is the process of absorbing and internalizing dominant ideas

What is interpellation?

The process of absorbing and internalizing dominant ideas

What does “one is not born, but rather becomes a woman” mean?

Gender roles are socially produced rather than determined solely by biology

What does feminist theory argue about gender roles?

Society teaches and reinforces expectations about how people should behave based on gender

How can feminist sociologists combine their approach with symbolic interactionism?

To explore how culture, expressed through language, shapes gender roles and norms (e.g. 'be a man', 'you throw like a girl', 'policeman')

How can conflict theorists combine their approach with symbolic interactionism?

To show how corporate interest shapes the meaning, use, and social significance of cultural objects (e.g. diamond engagement rings)

What is socialization?

The lifelong process of learning the norms, values and beliefs of our social setting

What is the goal of socialization?

To become socially acceptable and understand ourselves and appropriate behavior

Primary vs. secondary socialization

Primary: childhood, family and immediate peers, foundational. Secondary: adolescence onward, institutions outside the home (school, media, jobs)

difference between primary vs, secondary socialization

Primary builds basic ideas of the self and underlies everything else. Secondary involves institutions outside the family, whose norms may align or conflict with those learned in primary socialization.

What did Anthony Giddens argue about socialization?

Actors outside the home are increasingly influential in primary socialization

How does technology influence socialization?

Technology and content creators increasingly influence children's values, behaviors, and beliefs

What is context collapse (boyd, 2006)?

Multiple social contexts, with their audiences, expectations and norms, merging into one