comm 300 final exam - fallon sdsu

philosophical assumptions (3 types)

epistemology, ontology, and axiology

epistemology

branch of philosophy that studies knowledge; how do we know what we know?

rationalism

we have the capacity for deduction; we know things based on logic

empiricism

knowledge by observation; we know things because we observe/perceive them

constructivism

people create knowledge to function pragmatically in the world; we have knowledge based on our perspectives and experiences

social construction

we agree that certain things exist/have value - e.g. laws, language, religion, gender, race, time, beauty

explicit vs. tacit

knowledge is easily transferrable vs. knowledge cannot be expressed/given

ontology

the study of what is real (nature of being)

determinism

human behavior is predetermined; humans are predisposed to make certain decisions

pragmatism

people intentionally set goals and plan to meet them; free will

state vs. trait

temporary, situational, dynamic states vs. consistent traits over time

individual vs. group/social

individual thoughts/feelings affecting actions vs. social life as the primary unit of analysis

contextuality

are there universal factors about communicators, or are they richly contextual?

axiology

branch of philosophy concerned with the study of values

value-free scholarship

researchers believe they can seek objective knowledge without personal values getting in the way

value-conscious scholarship

researchers recognize the importance of values to research and theory; they are careful to acknowledge their particular standpoints and consciously consider how to use their work for good

effect of inquiry

reflecting on and inquiring about something has an effect on what is observed/life outside the study; no method is completely free of interference or distortion

change

do scholars have a responsibility to make sure knowledge generated is used in positive ways?

concepts

terms and definitions that structure a theory; indicates components theorist is concerned with

taxonomies

theories that stop at the conceptual level - do not provide an understanding of how things work

explanation

theorist identifies regularities or patterns to make sense of the relationships among variables

principle

precept or guideline that enables someone to interpret and evaluate an event and decide how to act

theoretical scope

a theory's breadth, comprehensiveness, or inclusiveness; the degree to which a theory is applicable to a wider range of cases

logical consistency

the extent to which concepts and propositions of a theoretical model make sense in terms of consistency

heuristic value

the extent to which a theory generates new ideas for research and/or additional theory

parsimony

the degree to which an explanation offered by a theory is clear and straightforward; the simpler, the better

utility

practical value of a theory; is it useful?

testability

degree to which a theory can be tested

test of time/enduring

whether a theory has durability/staying power over time; does it continue to raise questions, offer explanations, and stimulate research?

paradigm axes

regulation, radical change, objective, subjective

regulation

theories that focus on the underlying unity and cohesiveness of society and the need for regulation in human affairs

radical change

describes contemporary society as necessarily characterized by change, conflict, and domination

subjective

human affairs cannot be understood by means of the models and methods of the natural sciences; reflects a personal way of seeing the world

objective

attempt to apply models and methods derived from the natural sciences to the study of human affairs (social world is natural world)

paradigms (burrell & morgan)

four quadrants created by subjective/objective and regulation/radical change axes; mutually exclusive ways to analyze human social life

functionalist paradigm

the world of human affairs is ordered and regulated; can be studied by approaches developed in the natural sciences (objective & regulation)

interpretive paradigm

the world is fundamentally ordered and cohesive, but is subjective in how it emerges, develops, and evolves for each individual (subjective & regulation)

radical structuralist paradigm

approaches the world from an objectivist standpoint with a goal of change; radical change is natural and necessary (radical change & objective)

radical humanist paradigm

subjective and change oriented; committed to emancipating individual consciousness from the constraints that social arrangements have imposed on human development (radical change & subjective)

discourse axes

local/emergent, elite/a priori, consensus, dissensus

local/emergent

knowledge is situated and practical; privileges diverse communities

elite/a priori

seeks generalizable "truth" statements; appeals to universal assumptions

consensus

privileges agreed-upon and accepted social structures, orders, and norms; order waiting to be discovered

dissensus

conflict and struggle are considered the natural state of society; constantly challenges seemingly stable orders

discourses

normative studies, interpretive studies, critical studies, dialogic studies

discourse of normative studies

research practices mirror the natural sciences; search for law-like rules that govern human experience (elite/a priori & consensus)

discourse of interpretive studies

privileges research participants over the research process; concerned with people as active sense-makers and relies on field research/interviews (local/emergent & consensus)

discourse of critical studies

identifies, critiques, and seeks emancipation from domination and oppression; privileges social historical conditions and hegemonic struggle (elite/a priori & dissensus)

discourse of dialogic studies

domination is seen as situational rather than systemic; addresses oppression in local contexts (local/emergent & dissensus)

communication tiers (john powers)

the message, the communicator, level of communication, situation/context of communication

tier 1 (the message)

analysis of the message; centers communication as a process

tier 2 (the communicator)

describes the relationship between the message and its creator; communicator as an individual, nature of relationships created/destroyed/affected through communication, and the role of comm. in creating a cultural community

tier 3 (level of communication)

how communication patterns affect the presentation of a message in interpersonal, group, and public communications

tier 4 (situation/context of communication)

takes into account the social contexts in which communication occurs (family, religious, legal, education, work)

traditions of communication theory

socio-psychological, cybernetic, rhetorical, semiotic, socio-cultural, critical, phenomenological

semiotic tradition

the study of signs and symbols; we share meaning through signs

three elements of semiotics

semantics (the study of the meaning of signs and symbols); pragmatics (the practical implications of sign use); and syntactic (the ways signs are combined into complex systems of meaning)

phenomenological tradition

concerns the way humans come to understand the world through direct experience; subjective way of making sense of things

cybernetic tradition

communication as a system of information processing; inputs, processes, outputs

socio-psychological tradition

the study of the individual as a social being; human mind as a locus for processing information

three branches of the socio-psychological tradition

behavioral (how people actually behave in communication situations), cognitive (how individuals acquire, store, and process information in a way that leads to certain behaviors), and biological (the role of brain structure, neurochemistry, and genetics in explaining human behavior)

socio-cultural tradition

addresses the ways culture is produced and reproduced through communication; sees reality as socially constructed through interaction in groups and communities

critical tradition

investigates how power, oppression, and privilege are the products of certain forms of communication; reflective challenge to unjust discourse

rhetorical tradition

communication as artful public address

five canons of rhetoric

invention, arrangement, style, delivery, memory

invention

the process through which meaning is assigned to symbols through interpretation; acknowledges that communicators create what exists through choice of interpretive categories

arrangement

process of organizing symbols; arranging information to take into account the context, medium, and communicators involved in a particular communicative act

style

concerns all of the considerations involved in the selection and presentation of symbols (choice of words, formality of language, etc.)

delivery

the embodiment of symbols in some physical form (nonverbals to talk to writing to mediated messages)

memory

processes of perception that affect how humans process and retain information

trait theories

assume there are specific aspects of human behavior that remain relatively constant for an individual across time and situation

trait

fairly stable and consistent biological quality or characteristic

super traits

show how traits cluster together to explain personality differences (ex. argumentativeness = low neuroticism, high extraversion)

five-factor model

identifies five general factors that determine an individual's more specific traits (neuroticism, openness, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness)

openness

tendency to be curious, creative, independent, reflective, pragmatic, and data driven; open to new things and new ideas

conscientiousness

tendency to be self-disciplined, organized, efficient, and oriented toward task completion

extraversion

tendency to be sociable, assertive, optimistic, and talkative; energized by being around others

agreeableness

tendency to be cooperative and sympathetic rather than suspicious and antagonistic

neuroticism

tendency to feel vulnerable, anxious, and emotionally unstable

OCEAN

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

attribution theory

the ways humans make inferences about or explain the causes of behaviors and events - both their own and others

three-step process of attribution theory

1. observation of action or behavior

2. assessment of intent

3. attribution about source of motivation or cause of behavior

internal factors

behavior is attributed to the person; it is because of who they are

external factors

behavior is attributed to some outside factor or stimulus

circumstantial factors

behavior is attributed to the situation

consensus (attribution theory)

whether others behave similarly in the same situation

distinctiveness

whether a behavior is out of the ordinary for someone

consistency

the degree to which someone's behavior is consistent over time

intentionality

an additional dimension to attribution theory that considers the intention of the individual

fundamental attribution error

tendency to overemphasize personal or internal qualities when considering bad things that happen to other people vs. external factors to good things that happen to them

cognitive dissonance

when two cognitive elements are relevant but inconsistent, a state of discomfort is created

strategies to reduce dissonance

1. change one or more of the cognitive elements

2. add new elements

3. see dissonant elements as less important

4. seek consonant information

5. distort the information

post-decision dissonance

dissonance about a choice you have made

4 variables of post-decision dissonance

importance of the decision, attractiveness of the selection, perceived attractiveness of non-chosen alternatives, similarity of alternatives

forced compliance

being asked or made to do something contrary to one's beliefs or values; creates dissonance

social support

the more of this someone receives from friends about an idea or action, the greater the pressure to believe in that idea or action

task difficulty

the greater the amount of effort expended on a task, the more you will rationalize the value of that task

social judgement theory

explains the way we process persuasive messages

ego involvement

the degree to which an issue is relevant or important to a person

assimilation effect

perceiving messages within one's latitude of acceptance as close to their position than they actually are