CA 1 - PSYASS 3 (RESEARCH)

CA1 - Final Term

Conceptual Definition

The general meaning of a concept, often found in dictionaries or textbooks.

Operational Definition

Explains how the concept is measured or used in a specific research study.

Analytical Statements

Statements that are always true, no matter what.

Contradictory Statements

Statements that are always false because they contradict themselves.

Falsifiable Statements

Statements that can be tested and possibly proven false through research findings.

Analytical and Contradictory Statements

Avoid ______________ in research because their truth or falsity is already certain.

Null Hypothesis (H₀)

A statement that there is no significant effect or difference in the data.

Alternative Hypothesis (H₁)

A statement that there is a significant effect or difference in the data.

Longitudinal Studies

Research that follows the same group of people over a long period of time.

Cross-Sectional Studies

Research that studies different groups at one point in time to represent generations or age levels.

Experimental Studies

Research where the researcher changes one or more variables to see their effect.

Correlational Research

Research that looks for relationships between variables.

Descriptive Research

Research that describes characteristics, behaviors, or situations without testing cause-and-effect.

Correlation

Degree and direction of correspondence between two things.

Positive Correlation

• Both variables move in the same direction.

• Example: As study time increases, test scores also increase.

Negative Correlation

• Variables move in opposite directions.

• Example: As stress increases, sleep hours decrease.

Pearson r

Measures linear relationships between two continuous variables.

Spearman rho

Used for small samples or ranked data; measures correlation based on order.

Independent Variable

The variable you manipulate to see its effect.

Dependent Variable

The variable that changes because of the manipulation; the outcome being measured.

Extraneous Variable

A variable that is not part of the study but can still influence the results.

Between-Subjects Design

A design where each group of participants experiences only one condition of the independent variable.

Within-Subjects Design

A design where the same participants experience more than one condition of the independent variable.

Mixed Design

A research design that combines both between-subjects and within-subjects factors.

Between-Subjects Design

Identify what type of experimental design is being used in this study.

One group of employees receives mindfulness training, while another group receives physical exercise training. Each group only experiences one program.

Within-Subjects Design

Identify what type of experimental design is being used in this study.

The same group of employees first receives mindfulness training, then later receives physical exercise training. Everyone experiences both programs.

Mixed Design

Identify what type of experimental design is being used in this study.

Students are divided into groups where each group uses a different study method (flashcards, videos, group discussion). Within each group, all students are tested at multiple times (pre-test, midterm, final).

Two Independent Groups Design

• One independent variable (IV) with 2 levels, and one dependent variable (DV).

• Each group experiences only one level of the IV.

Multiple Groups Design

• One independent variable (IV) with 3 or more levels, and one dependent variable (DV).

• Each group experiences only one level of the IV.

Matched-Groups Design

• One independent variable (IV) with 2 levels, and one dependent variable (DV).

• Participants are matched on important traits (like age, gender) to make groups equal.

Two Independent Groups Design

Identify what type of between-groups design is being used in this study.

Group A tastes ube jam, Group B tastes strawberry jam.

Multiple Groups Design

Identify what type of between-groups design is being used in this study.

Group A tastes ube jam, Group B tastes strawberry jam, Group C tastes pineapple jam.

Matched-Groups Design

Identify what type of between-groups design is being used in this study.

A 16-year-old female in the ube jam group is matched with a 16-year-old female in the strawberry jam group.

History Threat

Outside events that happen before/during the experiment affect performance.

Maturation Threat

Natural changes in participants over time (internal or physical).

Testing Threat

Taking a pretest influences post-test scores.

Instrumentation Threat

Problems with the test itself or how it’s administered.

Statistical Regression Threat

Extreme scores tend to move closer to the mean on retesting.

Selection Threat

Groups are not randomly assigned.

Subject Mortality Threat

Participants drop out of the study.

Selection Interaction Threat

Combination of selection with other threats (history, maturation, etc.).

History Threat

Identify the threat to validity in this study.

A participant had a breakup last night and couldn’t focus on the test.

Maturation Threat

Identify the threat to validity in this study.

In a long-term study, students mature and their focus improves naturally.

Testing Threat

Identify the threat to validity in this study.

Low pretest, then very high post-test because participants remembered the questions.

Instrumentation Threat

Identify the threat to validity in this study.

Different versions of a test are not equally difficult.

Statistical Regression Threat

Identify the threat to validity in this study.

Very high/low pretest scores shift toward average in the post-test.

Selection Threat

Identify the threat to validity in this study.

One class is chosen for the experiment, another is not.

Subject Mortality Threat

Identify the threat to validity in this study.

Some students withdraw before the post-test.

Selection Interaction Threat

Identify the threat to validity in this study.

Two classrooms are compared without random assignment. One meets in the morning, the other in the afternoon, and fatigue affects only the afternoon group.

Reactivity

Participants change their behavior simply because they know they are being observed.

Hawthorne Effect

A specific type of reactivity where participants improve their performance because they know they are being observed.

John Henry Effect

A specific type of Hawthorne effect. The control group realizes they are the control group and competes with the experimental group out of perceived unfairness.

Phenomenology

Focuses on the lived experiences of subjects.

Case Studies

A descriptive record of one subject’s or group’s experiences.

Field Studies

Research conducted in the natural environment, not in a lab.

Naturalistic Observation

Researcher only observes what happens naturally.

Participant Observer

Researcher joins in and does what the subjects do.

Archival Studies

Research using existing records, books, or past studies instead of collecting new data.

Qualitative Research

Research that focuses on words, meanings, and experiences rather than numbers.

Integrity of the Test

CODE OF ETHICS

• Test results are confidential; only you and the test taker can access them unless permission is given.

• Do not release raw or scaled scores; provide interpreted scores to avoid confusion.

Conflicts Between Ethics and Law

CODE OF ETHICS

• First, try to reconcile ethics and law.

• Only follow the law as a last resort if reconciliation is impossible.

Providing Services in Emergencies

CODE OF ETHICS

• You may provide help even if not fully qualified.

• Once the appropriate professional arrives, endorse the client immediately.

Personal Problems and Conflicts

CODE OF ETHICS

If unwell or not in the right state, refer clients to another qualified expert.

Avoiding Harm

CODE OF ETHICS

Protect potential victims by informing them and the authorities when necessary.

Informed Consent & Recording

CODE OF ETHICS

• Informed consent is required before participation.

• If deception is used, always debrief afterward.

• Ask consent before recording; if forgotten, ask afterward.

Assent

Informed consent for minors, guardian consent.

Consent

Informed consent for adults.

Release of Test Results

CODE OF ETHICS

• Do not release raw scores.

• Do not release results to others (even parents of children) without consent.

• Observation notes are yours; you may choose to share edited or raw versions if part of the process.

Test Usage

CODE OF ETHICS

Refers to the rules and classifications that determine who is authorized to administer psychological tests based on their complexity, purpose, and required qualifications.

Class A Tests

• Simple achievement or proficiency tests.

• Can be administered by anyone (e.g., teachers).

Class B Tests

• Group intelligence tests, objective personality tests.

• Require a registered psychometrician or psychologist.

Class C Tests

• Complex, projective tests (e.g., Rorschach, TAT).

• Require a registered psychologist.

• Psychometricians may administer only under supervision and for academic purposes.