HBNS200-080 Exam 2 - Thrope

Chapters 7-11 & Vegan

Transamination

The biochemical process of transferring an amino group from one amino acid to another carbon skeleton to create a nonessential amino acid.

Deamination

The process of removing an amino group from an amino acid that is lost rather than transferred to another compound, allowing the remaining carbon skeleton to be metabolized.

Complete Protein

A dietary protein source that contains all $9$ essential amino acids in adequate amounts; examples include animal foods (except gelatin) and plant sources like quinoa, soy, and buckwheat.

Incomplete Protein

A protein source that lacks one or more of the $9$ essential amino acids, characteristic of most plant foods.

Limiting Amino Acid

The essential amino acid present in the smallest amount relative to bodily needs, which restricts the total amount of protein the body can synthesize.

Complementary Proteins

Two or more incomplete plant proteins (such as beans and nuts) combined together to compensate for each other's amino acid deficiencies and supply all essential amino acids.

Protein Turnover

The continuous cellular process of breaking down and resynthesizing proteins, which enables cells to adapt protein production to changing physiological demands.

Denaturation

The structural unfolding and alteration of a protein's shape, initiated during digestion or caused by heat, acid, enzymes, $\text{pH}$, alcohol, or physical agitation.

Nitrogen Balance

A physiological measurement indicating whether the body is gaining, losing, or maintaining protein mass, monitored through the hepatic conversion of ammonia to urea and renal excretion in urine.

Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

A condition of severe undernutrition resulting from prolonged insufficient intake of protein and calories, most commonly seen in children.

Marasmus

A slowly developing form of protein-energy malnutrition caused by severe, chronic deficiencies of calories, protein, and micronutrients, characterized by extreme wasting ("skin and bones").

Kwashiorkor

A rapidly developing form of malnutrition triggered by acute severe protein deficiency alongside an underlying infection, characterized by edema and fatty liver.

Standard Alcoholic Drink

A reference beverage measurement defined as $12\,\text{fl oz}$ of regular beer, $8\text{--}10\,\text{fl oz}$ of malt liquor or hard seltzer, $5\,\text{fl oz}$ of table wine, $3\text{--}4\,\text{fl oz}$ of fortified wine, $2\text{--}3\,\text{fl oz}$ of liqueur, or $1.5\,\text{fl oz}$ of spirits.

Binge Drinking

A dangerous pattern of alcohol consumption defined as $4$ or more drinks on a single occasion for women, or $5$ or more drinks within $2\,\text{hours}$ for men.

Heavy Drinking

A high-risk drinking pattern defined as consuming $8$ or more alcoholic drinks per week for women, or $15$ or more alcoholic drinks per week for men.

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

A debilitating neurological disorder linked to chronic alcohol misuse resulting from a deficiency of the micronutrient thiamin.

Catabolism

The metabolic pathway involving the breakdown of large, complex molecules into smaller units, accompanied by the release of energy.

Anabolism

The metabolic pathway in which cells utilize energy to synthesize larger, complex compounds from smaller molecular precursors.

Glycolysis

The anaerobic metabolic process occurring in the cytosol that splits one molecule of glucose into $2$ molecules of pyruvate while yielding a small amount of $\text{ATP}$.

Citric Acid Cycle

The oxidative mitochondrial pathway in which $2$-carbon acetyl-${\text{CoA}}$ molecules are oxidized to yield energy-carrier molecules and carbon dioxide.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

A series of mitochondrial electron carrier complexes that transfer electrons to oxygen (the final aerobic acceptor) to generate the majority of cellular $\text{ATP}$.

Beta-Oxidation

The process of fatty acid oxidation that cleaves fatty acid chains $2$ carbons at a time to generate acetyl-${\text{CoA}}$ for entry into the Citric Acid Cycle.

Gluconeogenesis

The metabolic synthesis of new glucose molecules from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates, primarily glucogenic amino acids.

Ketogenesis

The hepatic synthesis of ketone bodies from fatty acids and acetyl-${\text{CoA}}$ when insulin levels are low and carbohydrate consumption is insufficient.

Basal Metabolism (BMR)

The minimum energy expenditure required to sustain vital, involuntary resting bodily functions such as respiration, organ maintenance, and circulation.

Ghrelin

A short-term hormone that acts before and after meals to stimulate hunger and increase dietary intake.

Leptin

A long-term satiety hormone produced by adipose tissue that suppresses hunger when bodily fat stores are adequate.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

An indirect screening ratio of body fat calculated from a person's weight and height that does not differentiate lean muscle mass from adipose tissue.

Anorexia Nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by extreme weight loss, severe fear of weight gain, distorted body image, low blood pressure, dehydration, and amenorrhea.

Bulimia Nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by recurrent cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory purging, leading to tooth enamel erosion, gastrointestinal injury, and electrolyte imbalances.

Binge Eating Disorder

An eating disorder marked by recurring episodes of compulsive overeating without regular compensatory purging, frequently associated with distress, depression, and obesity.

Orthorexia Nervosa

An unofficial eating disorder characterized by an obsessive fixation on consuming only "pure" or "righteous" foods.

Carbohydrate Loading

A dietary regimen for endurance athletes preparing for continuous events lasting longer than $90\,\text{minutes}$, combining tapered training with elevated carbohydrate intake to maximize muscle glycogen stores.

Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDS)

A clinical syndrome caused by insufficient energy intake relative to athletic expenditure, leading to elevated injury risk, reduced bone mineral density, and amenorrhea.

Heatstroke

A medical emergency resulting from severe dehydration and thermal failure, where internal body temperature reaches or exceeds $104^\circ\text{F}$.

Ergogenic Aids

Mechanical, nutritional, or pharmacological substances used with the goal of directly improving athletic performance and exercise capacity.

Phytochemicals

Bioactive plant compounds (such as polyphenols) found in colorful vegetables and fruits that provide antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hormone-like protective health effects.

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

The digestive hormone triggered by chyme entering the small intestine that stimulates the pancreas to release proteases.

Adult Protein RDA

A dietary reference intake of $0.8\,\text{g/kg}$ of body weight for healthy adults, increasing to $1.2\,\text{g/kg}$ for adults aged $65$ and older.

Major Food Allergens

The eight foods responsible for the vast majority of allergic responses: milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, shellfish, soy, and wheat.

Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH)

The primary enzyme responsible for metabolizing ethanol in the gastrointestinal tract and liver.

Alcohol Poisoning

A severe medical crisis occurring when excessive blood alcohol concentrations shut down brain regions regulating vital functions, causing confusion, seizures, hypothermia, and unconsciousness.

Glucogenic Amino Acids

Amino acids whose carbon skeletons can be converted into pyruvate or citric acid cycle intermediates to yield glucose via gluconeogenesis.

Ketogenic Amino Acids

Amino acids whose catabolism yields acetyl-$\text{CoA}$ directly, serving as substrates for ketone body formation when insulin concentrations are low.

Feasting State

The metabolic condition following meal consumption characterized by the anabolic synthesis of glycogen, body fat, structural proteins, and urea.

Energy Deficit for Weight Loss

A cumulative reduction of approximately $3500\,\text{kcal}$ needed to lose one pound of adipose tissue, achieved through a $500\,\text{kcal/day}$ negative energy balance.

Lacto-Ovo-Vegetarian

A plant-based dietary pattern that excludes meat, poultry, and fish, while allowing the consumption of dairy products and eggs.

Vitamin $B_{12}$ Dietary Consideration

An essential micronutrient found naturally only in animal-derived foods, necessitating the use of fortified products or supplements by strict vegans.

Heat Exhaustion

The initial clinical stage of heat-related illness resulting from excessive fluid depletion through perspiration.

Water Intoxication

A dangerous physiological state caused by consuming excessive volumes of plain water without replenishing sodium losses during extended endurance exercise.

Intra-Workout Carbohydrate Target

The intake guideline recommending the consumption of $30\text{--}60\,\text{g}$ of carbohydrates per hour for continuous aerobic events lasting longer than $60\,\text{minutes}$.

Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range for Protein

A dietary guideline recommending that protein provide $10\%$ to $35\%$ of total daily energy intake.

Sites of Alcohol Absorption

The digestive organs where ethanol enters circulation without prior breakdown, consisting of $20\%$ in the stomach via simple diffusion and $80\%$ in the small intestine.

Hepatic Alcohol Clearance Rate

The metabolic pace of the liver, which can oxidize approximately $1$ standard beverage per hour.

Alcoholic Steatosis

The initial, reversible stage of alcohol-related liver injury characterized by abnormal lipid accumulation in hepatocytes.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

The high-energy molecule synthesized in cells that functions as the immediate currency for biochemical work and metabolic processes.

Erythrocyte Fuel Requirement

The obligatory physiological need of mature red blood cells to obtain $100\%$ of their metabolic energy exclusively from glucose because they lack mitochondria.

Lipolysis

The biochemical breakdown of stored triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol prior to cellular energy production.

Metabolic Fasting State

The physiologic condition triggered by caloric deprivation, characterized by liver glycogen depletion, fatty acid mobilization from adipose tissue, gluconeogenesis, and ketogenesis.

Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)

An acute, life-threatening metabolic crisis primarily affecting individuals with untreated type 1 diabetes, resulting from massive ketone accumulation that drastically reduces systemic blood $\text{pH}$.

Physiological Hunger

The internal biological drive that prompts food intake, regulated by hormonal signals, neural pathways, and peripheral organs.

Non-Heme Iron Absorption Enhancer

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), which chemically promotes the intestinal uptake and bioavailability of iron derived from plant foods.

Sports Anemia

A benign, transient condition observed in endurance athletes resulting from exercise-induced expansion of plasma volume, which dilutes hemoglobin concentration without reducing oxygen-carrying capability.

Post-Exercise Fluid Replacement Ratio

The hydration guideline advising athletes to consume $3\,\text{cups}$ of liquid for every $1\,\text{pound}$ of body weight lost via sweat.

Athlete Protein Intake Guideline

A dietary recommendation specifying $1.2$ to $1.8\,\text{g/kg}$ of body weight per day to support muscular protein synthesis and tissue repair in active individuals.

Heat Cramps

Painful, involuntary skeletal muscle spasms lasting $1$ to $3\,\text{minutes}$ that develop during or after strenuous exertion in hot environments.

Mediterranean Diet

A regional plant-forward dietary pattern rich in fruits, vegetables, olive oil, and whole grains, characterized by a favorable omega-6 to omega-3 ratio, moderate wine intake with meals, and reduced chronic disease incidence.

Flexitarian Diet

A semi-vegetarian nutritional approach centered around plant foods while permitting the occasional, limited intake of meat, poultry, and fish.

Pescatarian Diet

A dietary pattern that omits mammalian meat and poultry while including fish, shellfish, and plant-based foods.

Factors Elevating Basal Metabolic Rate

Physiological and demographic variables including male biological sex, greater lean muscle tissue mass, and active periods of physical growth.

Critical Dehydration Threshold

A fluid depletion level equivalent to a loss of $2\%$ or more of baseline body weight through perspiration, which significantly impairs endurance and thermoregulation.