Developmental Psychology: Kohlberg, Attachment, and Erikson’s Stages

What two types of development occur simultaneously according to the text?

Cognitive and social development

Who emphasized that cognitive development is best understood in its social context?

Vygotsky

What is the major theory of moral development discussed in the text?

Kohlberg's stage theory of moral reasoning

What is the Heinz dilemma used to assess in Kohlberg's theory?

A person's level of moral reasoning

What are the three levels of moral reasoning in Kohlberg's theory?

Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional

What characterizes the preconventional level of moral reasoning?

Emphasis on avoiding punishment and looking out for one's own welfare

What is the focus of moral reasoning at the conventional level?

Based on social rules and laws, with importance on social approval

What defines the postconventional level of moral reasoning?

Based on self-chosen universal ethical principles, prioritizing human rights

What is the first stage of preconventional morality?

Punishment orientation

What is the second stage of preconventional morality?

Reward orientation

What is the third stage of conventional morality?

Good-girl/good-boy orientation

What is the fourth stage of conventional morality?

Law-and-order orientation

What is the fifth stage of postconventional morality?

Social contract orientation

What is the sixth stage of postconventional morality?

Universal ethical principles orientation

What does Kohlberg emphasize is important in determining a person's moral reasoning level?

The reasoning provided in their explanation, not just their answer

What criticism is mentioned regarding Kohlberg's theory?

It may not adequately represent the morality of women and is biased toward Western values

What is a key finding about the attainment of moral reasoning levels across cultures?

Most people reach the conventional level by adulthood, but postconventional level attainment is unclear

What tragic event occurred in Kohlberg's life?

He died by suicide in 1987 after suffering from illness and depression

How did Kohlberg's life end?

He walked into the freezing Boston Harbor and died by suicide

What is the relationship between cognitive development and moral reasoning according to Kohlberg?

Moral reasoning levels are age-related and linked to cognitive development

What did Kohlberg use to assess moral reasoning?

Stories involving moral dilemmas

What is one example of a moral dilemma used by Kohlberg?

The dilemma involving Heinz stealing the drug for his dying wife

What is a common critique of the relationship between thought and action in moral reasoning?

Ethical talk may not equate to ethical behavior

What is the significance of Kohlberg's stage theory in psychology?

It has stimulated ongoing research and discussion about moral development

What does the term 'theory of mind' refer to in early social development?

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one's own

What role do parenting styles play in social development?

They influence attachment formation and overall social development in children

What is the relationship between moral reasoning and social development?

Moral reasoning involves both social and cognitive elements, affecting social development

What is attachment in the context of developmental psychology?

A lifelong emotional bond formed between infants and their primary caregivers during the first 6 months of life.

Who is considered the pioneer of attachment theory?

John Bowlby, who studied the importance of the infant-caregiver relationship.

What did Harry Harlow's research with monkeys demonstrate about attachment?

That 'contact comfort' is more crucial for attachment than reinforcement from nourishment.

What were the two types of surrogate mothers used in Harlow's experiments?

One made of wire and one made of terry cloth.

What behavior did infant monkeys exhibit when given a choice between a wire mother and a cloth mother?

They preferred the cloth mother for comfort, regardless of which provided nourishment.

What is 'contact comfort'?

The physical comfort received from being in close contact with a caregiver, which is essential for attachment formation.

What did Harlow observe about infant monkeys in unfamiliar situations?

They felt secure and explored the environment when a surrogate mother was present.

What is the Strange Situation procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth?

A structured observation to assess attachment relationships in infants by observing their behavior in an unfamiliar room.

What are the three main types of attachment identified by Ainsworth?

Secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-ambivalent.

What characterizes secure attachment?

The infant explores freely in the mother's presence, shows distress when she leaves, and is enthusiastic upon her return.

What characterizes insecure-avoidant attachment?

The infant shows minimal interest in the mother, little distress when she leaves, and avoids her upon return.

What characterizes insecure-ambivalent attachment?

The infant seeks closeness to the mother, shows high distress when she leaves, and exhibits ambivalent behavior upon her return.

What is the fourth type of attachment added later by researchers?

Insecure-disorganized (disoriented) attachment, characterized by confusion and disorientation in the infant.

What factor is the major determinant of the quality of the attachment relationship?

The sensitivity and responsiveness of the mother to the infant's needs.

How does an infant's temperament influence attachment?

Infants are born with innate tendencies that affect their behavior and interactions, contributing to attachment formation.

What proportion of infants typically form secure attachments?

About two-thirds of infants studied.

How can cultural differences affect attachment types?

Cross-cultural research indicates that the proportions of attachment types may vary across different cultures.

What is the significance of the first 6 months in an infant's life regarding attachment?

It is the critical period during which the attachment bond is formed and influenced by caregiver interactions.

What did Harlow's research reveal about the emotional needs of infant monkeys?

That emotional security is vital for healthy development, beyond just physical needs.

What role do caregivers play in the development of an infant's personality?

Caregivers influence the infant's social development and attachment through their responsiveness and sensitivity.

What happens to infants with insecure attachments when faced with stress?

They may struggle to cope and exhibit disorganized behavior in stressful situations.

What is the main conclusion from Harlow's studies on attachment?

That emotional bonds are formed through comfort and security rather than just the provision of basic needs.

What is the impact of daycare on attachment according to the text?

It raises questions about potential disadvantages for children compared to those who remain at home.

What did Harlow use to comfort the infant monkeys during his experiments?

Cheesecloth blankets, which the monkeys became attached to.

What behavior did the infant monkeys exhibit when they were in a strange situation without their surrogate mother?

They cowered in fear, indicating the importance of the surrogate for their security.

What is the relationship between maternal sensitivity and secure attachment?

Sensitive and responsive mothers are more likely to foster secure attachments in their infants.

What is temperament in the context of child development?

Temperament refers to the inherent traits that influence how infants respond to their environment and interact with others.

How does an infant's temperament affect attachment relationships?

A good match between an infant's temperament and the caregiver's personality enhances the likelihood of forming a secure attachment.

What are the long-term benefits of secure attachments in infancy?

Secure attachments are linked to higher cognitive functioning and social competence in childhood.

Can the type of attachment formed in infancy change over time?

Yes, the type of attachment can change due to new experiences and changes in family circumstances.

What is the general consensus about day care and secure attachments?

Research indicates that day care is not detrimental to secure attachments and cognitive/social development.

What factors moderate the effects of day care on children?

Factors include the child's age when starting day care, the number of hours spent in day care, and the quality of the day care.

What are the five characteristics of high-quality day care?

1. Adequate attention to each child, 2. Encouragement of language and sensorimotor development, 3. Attention to health and safety, 4. Professional caregivers with qualifications, 5. Warm, responsive caregiving.

Who identified the four styles of parenting?

Diana Baumrind identified the four styles of parenting.

What are the four styles of parenting according to Baumrind?

Authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved.

Describe authoritarian parenting.

Authoritarian parents are demanding, expect obedience, are unresponsive to children's desires, and communicate poorly.

What characterizes authoritative parenting?

Authoritative parents set rational limits, communicate well, enforce rules consistently, and consider children's viewpoints.

How do permissive parents behave?

Permissive parents make few demands, are overly responsive to children's desires, and rarely enforce rules.

What is the approach of uninvolved parents?

Uninvolved parents provide basic needs but minimize time and emotional involvement with their children.

Which parenting style is associated with the most positive child development outcomes?

Authoritative parenting is linked to the most positive outcomes in independence, happiness, and academic success.

How do cultural contexts affect parenting styles?

The effects of parenting styles may vary across different ethnic and cultural groups due to broader cultural influences.

What is the significance of friendships in child development?

Friendships become increasingly important for emotional support as children age, especially during adolescence.

What roles do peers play in children's social development?

Peers provide emotional support and influence social status, with popular children typically having better social skills.

What risks do rejected children face?

Rejected children are at increased risk for emotional and social difficulties.

What is theory of mind?

Theory of mind is the understanding that others have different thoughts, beliefs, and emotions than oneself.

Why is the development of theory of mind important in early childhood?

It is crucial for social cognition and helps children navigate social interactions effectively.

What does research suggest about the relationship between authoritative parenting and childhood outcomes?

Research shows a strong positive relationship between authoritative parenting and successful social and academic outcomes.

What caution should be taken when interpreting findings on parenting styles?

Findings are correlational, and there may be third variables influencing the relationship between parenting style and child development.

What is the impact of family changes on attachment types?

Changes such as divorce or remarriage can alter attachment types as family dynamics change.

How does the quality of day care affect children's later success?

Children in high-quality day care tend to perform better academically and socially than those in low-quality care.

What are the implications of parenting styles on social competence?

Authoritative parenting is consistently associated with higher social competence in children.

How do early friendships differ from those in adolescence?

Early friendships are based on similar interests, while adolescent friendships serve more emotional needs.

What is the role of parents in adolescents' decision-making?

Adolescents still value parental relationships and often uphold parental standards in major decisions.

At what age do children typically develop an understanding of false beliefs?

Between 4 and 5 years of age.

What is a false-belief problem?

A test used to determine if a child understands that others can have beliefs about the world that are incorrect.

In the unexpected location task, what does a 5-year-old predict about Big Bird's belief?

That Big Bird will think the ball is in the original box.

What do 3-year-olds typically predict in the unexpected location task?

That Big Bird will think the ball is in the toy chest.

What is one proposed biological basis for theory of mind development?

The mirror neuron system.

How might mirror neuron system deficits relate to autism?

They may lead to developmental impairments in imitation learning and theory of mind.

What is Erik Erikson's psychosocial stage theory?

A theory that describes eight stages of development throughout the lifespan, emphasizing social and personality development.

What is the first stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year).

What do infants learn in the trust vs. mistrust stage?

They learn whether they can trust others to meet their basic needs.

What is the second stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 to 2 years).

What do children learn in the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage?

They learn to be self-sufficient in activities like toilet training and exploring.

What is the third stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 5 years).

What do children learn in the initiative vs. guilt stage?

They learn to take initiative but may feel guilty if they overstep parental limits.

What is the fourth stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

Industry vs. inferiority (5 years to puberty).

What do children learn in the industry vs. inferiority stage?

They learn to master new skills or feel inferior if they fail.

What is the fifth stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence).

What do adolescents develop in the identity vs. role confusion stage?

A sense of identity by experimenting with different roles.

What is the sixth stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood).

What do young adults seek in the intimacy vs. isolation stage?

To form intimate relationships or risk becoming isolated.

What is the seventh stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood).