Language and Communication

weeks 1 - 5

how many languages are there and how often do they ‘die’

3 000 to 8 000

die out at a rate of 1 every 2 weeks

what are the most common languages

chinese, spanish, english

what constitutes a communicative act

1. transmitter who encodes information into a signal

2. physical transmission of a signal

3. receiver who decodes the signal to recover information

what is communication

“when one organism (the transmitter) encodes information into a signal which passes to another organism (the receiver) which decodes the signal and is capable of responding appropriately”

what can communication failure occur from

1. faulty encoding (slip of tongue/cannot remember)

2. faulty transmission (cannot make out what is being communicated)

3. faulty decoding (misreading/hearing)

4. mismatch between encoding processes of transmitter and decoding of receiver

what is verbal communication

 spoken/written transmission of a message (dialects and regiolects, group language, constructed language)

what is nonverbal communication

non-linguistic aspects (body language, gestures, emotions)

what is a language

a type of communication made up of a structured system of symbols/words and rules/grammar by which they are combined

Communication ≠ language, language = communication

how is the production divided

1. conceptualisation - deciding what to express, composed of semantic and pragmatic features of lexical concepts

2. word sel- determining how to express lemmas an lexical entries

3. sound processing

what are some language design features of humans

Semanticity: words are symbols/signs that express meaning

Arbitrariness: no intrinsic relation between most words and their meaning (only onomatopoeia)

Displacement: not tied to here and now, talk about the future/past/somewhere else/hypotheticals

Productivity/generativity: new language can be generated

• Finite collection of sounds and words -> infinite number of messages

• Must obey rules of the language

Prevarication: ability to lie

Reflexiveness: use language to talk about language

what are the 4 elements that make human language uniqie

1. Displacement - can discuss past, future or distant events

2. Productivity - generate completely new sentences

3. Traditional transmission - language is learned from others rather than being genetically inherited

4. Duality of patterning - small meaningless sounds combine into meaningful words

what are some suggestions for language evolution

larger brains

social cooperation

advancing learning and teaching

cultural transmissions

human vs ape communication

• Apes have a very rich communication system (95-98% overlap and highly social)

• Similar brain asymmetries as humans

  • Enlarged Broca's area

• Cannot teach them to speak - different articulatory apparatus (throat) from humans

what are some chimp studies and what did they show

• Kellog & Kellog (1933) raised chimp with their infant son (“cross- fostering”) - learned to understand a few words but never produced any.

• Keith & Kathy Hayes (1952), after 6 years chimp could understand words and some word combinations, also learned to articulate a few words (mama, papa, up, cup), but with difficulty.

• Garner & Garner (1969) taught chimp ASL - by 4 years she had acquired 85 signs (e.g., more, eat, listen, gimme, you, me, hurry), and also produced sign combinations such as you-drink, baby-mine. (some sensitivity to word order and some new combinations, taught sign)

• Terrace et al. (1979), chimp learned about

125 ASL signs and made sign combinations (e.g. play-

me). Longer combinations heavily redundant:

Give orange me give eat orange me eat orange give

me eat orange give me you.

40% simple repetitions; rarely signed spontaneously.

No novel combinations (unlike children)

what is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

language shapes our thoughts through determinism and relativism

what is linguistic determinism

thoughts are limited, constrained by language - language determines thinking

• Impossibility of translation

• Language-less adults - can they not think?

• Debatable topic

what is language relativism

people who speak a different language perceive and experience the world differently - language influences thought but does not determine it

• Critiques - equating language with thought, thoughts precedes language

• If thoughts depends on words how can new words be coined

does the gender of word affect language used

• Boroditsky et al. - German and Spanish speakers describe words, if the object has a masculine gender they used more masculine terms and vis versa

• Carmichael et al. - how an ambiguous object is described affects later recall//memory

• Glucksberg & Weisberg - the way an object is described affects how we think about its use

how does language affect encoding in space

• Egocentric language: relative frame of reference (left, right, front, back)

• Allocentric language: absolute frame of reference (north, south)

• Different languages use different types - can experience the world differently

• Boroditsky - English speakers think of time horizontally whereas Mandarin speakers think of time vertically

what is the debate about the origin of speech

The comparative method of historical linguistics reaches only the level of proto‑languages, which already exhibit full linguistic complexity, thus cannot reach the origin of speech.

what are the 13 universal design features of humans

1. Vocal auditory channel - communication is primarily through spoken sounds and hearing.

2. Broadcast transmission and directional perception - Signals spread out and can be heard by multiple listeners, who can usually locate the source.

3. Rapid fading (transitoriness) - Speech signals disappear quickly after being produced

4. Interchangeability - Individuals can both send and receive the same kinds of messages.

5. Total feedback - Speakers can hear and monitor their own utterances.

6. Specialization - Speech sounds are produced primarily for communication rather than as a by-product of another activity

7. Semanticity - Signals are associated with specific meanings

8. Arbitrariness - The form of a signal is generally unrelated to its meaning (for example, the word "dog" does not resemble a dog)

9. Discreteness - Language uses distinct, separable units (such as phonemes) rather than continuous gradations

10. Displacement - Language can refer to things not present in the immediate time or place.

11. Productivity - Speakers can create and understand novel utterances that they have never heard before

12. Traditional transmission - Language is learned socially and culturally rather than being wholly genetically programmed.

13. Duality of patterning - Meaningless sounds combine to form meaningful units (words), which in turn combine into larger meaningful structures

how is language structured

1. honetics (speech sounds)

   1. Describes and classifies speech sounds that occur in languages

      1. Articulatory: how sounds are produced

      2. Auditory: how they are perceived

      3. Acoustic: physical properties of sound 

2. Phonology (sound system)

   1. Concerned with the way speech sounds form systems in languages

      1. Phones: the inventory of phonetic segments that occur in your language; the instantiations (physical

characteristics) of a phoneme

1. Phonemes: the sounds in your language that can distinguish between words

1. Uses minimal pairs to determine the phonemes of a language

2. Languages differ in which phones they choose to use as phonemes

   1. Allophones: different realisation of same phoneme

1. Morphology (word formation)

2. Syntax (sentence structure)

3. Semantics (meaning)

4. Pragmatics (language context)

how are spoken words produced

1. Conceptualisation, preverbal  - what to express

   1. Message planning

   2. Pre-linguistic

   3. Language is neutral

2. Formulation - how to express it

   1. Lexicalisation

      1. Two stage retrieval process

      2. Meaning -> lemma + form -> lexeme

      3. 2 different word substitution errors

         1. Semantic and phonological

   2. Syntactic planning

   3. Phonological encoding

   4. Phonetic planning

   5. Uses word selection (lemmas) and sound processing (lexemes)_

3. Articulation - expressing it

   1. Pronunciation

4. Self-monitoring (from the Weaver++ model)

   1. Internal monitoring of what you're going to say

   2. External monitoring during speech

what evidence is used to develop spoken word production

speech errors

tip of the tongue

picture naming

picture word interference

what are speech errors

1. Automatic

2. Less attention to speech production than comprehension

3. 1-2 errors for every 1000 words

4. Errors do not occur at random

5. 8 types of speech errors

   1. Shift: an exchange of one element to a different place

   2. Exchange: an exchange of two elements to different places

   3. Anticipation: already knowing upcoming sounds and so saying it

   4. Perseveration: saying previous sounds

   5. Addition: adding an element

   6. Deletion: dropping an element

   7. Substitution: word is substituted by a word that is not in the same sentence/context

   8. Blend: two words are activated and related to each other, and so are combined together 

6. Exchange of phonemes in similar positions

7. Consonants swap with consonants, vowels swap with vowels

8. Novel words follow the phonological rules of the language

9. Databases of spontaneous errors

10. Errors indicate two different processes

    1. Retrieving words

    2. Constructing a syntactic frame in which the words are slotted

11. Word errors: not restricted by distance and always of the same type

12. Sound errors: close together and can cross word type, happens later

what is Garrett's model of speech production

what is tip of the tongue

1. Often comes with partial information

   1. Initial sounds

   2. Number of syllables

   3. Correct stress pattern

2. Phonologically related words get activated

3. Evidence for 2-stage model of lexicalisation

   1. Completed first stage, can't completed second -> retrieval of meaning is independent of its sound

   2. lemma (meaning and syntactic information) → lexeme (word form/sound)

4. Provides two theories

   1. Blocking hypothesis (Jones and Langford) - interlopers prevent activation of the right word

   2. Transmission-deficit hypothesis - due to weak links between the meaning and the word form, only limited activation of the target word forms

what is picture naming

1. Part 1 - generation

2. Part 2 - picture naming

3. Results in

   1. Long-term facilitation for naming lasting over trials

   2. Homophone priming does not persist

   3. No facilitation across languages

what is picture word interference

1. Naming a picture as quickly as possible whilst ignoring distractor words

   1. If words are semantically related -> slower than control group

   2. If words are phonologically related -> faster than control group

 

what does lexicalisation entail

• Discrete (step by step)

  • Semantic -> phonological

    • First a single item is selected based on semantic information, then phonological form is revealed

Interactive (activation flows between)

• Cascading process (Levelt et al) - mediated priming

  • Early inhibitory priming of semantic -> at lemma level

  • Late priming of phonological -> at lexeme level

  • No priming of goal -> evidence against cascading/feedback

• Feedback activation

  • Errors are not random

    • Lexical bias: sound-level speech errors result in words more often than by chance

    • Similarity effects: mixed substitution errors (both semantically and phonologically related to target) more than chance

  • Use output monitor rather than feedback

how does speech impact reading

• Fixations and saccades made when we read - jumping from word to word, skipping words

  • Information taken in in first 50-60ms of fixating

what cognitive factors affect reading out loud

• Frequency

• Morphology

• Phonology

  • Use subvocalization (inner speech)

• Predictability

• Reading skill

what is the first stage of reading processes

getting from letters to meaning of word

• Orthography -> phonology -> semantics

how does reading work

mental lexicons activate the intended word

what factors affect word recognition speed

frequency

age of acquisition effect

orthography

morphology

compound decomposition

semantics

how does frequency affect word recognition speed

• High frequency words recognised fast then low

• More frequent -> faster/more accurate

• General information retrieval mechanism

• Less frequent words tend to be less familiar, less meaningful

how does the age of acquisition effect (AoA) impact word recognition speed

• Words that are learned at a younger age are recognised faster

how does orthography affect word recongition speed

• Transposed letters - same letters of the words but switched

• Substituted letters - different letters

• Parafoveal processing of letter information leads to a boundary change paradigm

  • Parafoveal processing: processing is complete even before we look at a word

what did Rayer et al discover about orthography and word recognition

how does morphology affect word recognition speed

• Morphemes: the smallest meaningful unit of a language

  • Can be a word itself or part of a word

  • Made up of roots and affixes (prefixes and suffixes)

• Compound decomposition

• Pseudo-affixes: look like they have an affix

how does semantics affect word recognition speed

• Words that are recognised faster are semantically richer

• More semantic features -> more semantic neighbours -> higher imageability -> more concrete -> easier to bodily interact with

• Degree of emotional valence (positive/negative/neutral) and a degree of arousal (high/low)

what did Juhasz discover about the interaction of lexical variables and eye fixation durations during natural reading

1. Length influences later processing, evident after readers make additional fixations on longer words.

2. Concrete words and early‑acquired words receive shorter fixations than abstract or late‑acquired words, confirming that these variables impact real‑time reading.

3. Frequency and subjective familiarity are robust, independent predictors of fixation times across all stages of word processing.

4. Word length influences later‑stage measures (gaze, total‑fixation), reflecting increased refixation probability for longer words.

what do the models of word recognition investigate

How words are searched in the mental dictionary

• Word entries are searched one at a time

  • In series

• Word entries are search all at once

  • In parallel

How information flows

• Strictly one way

  • Letters -> words

• Interactive

  • Letters <-> words

what are the models of word recognition

Foster’s search model

Morton’s logogen model

R and M interactive Activation Model

Dual route model

what is Foster’s search model

Recognise letters -> access unit -> get some initial units -> chooses a 'bin' -> once in a 'bin' entries are searched one by one

1. Bins are ordered by frequency

2. Several units are possible

Word entries are searched one by one - serial processing

a simple model

what is the Morton’s Logogen Model

Parallel - sends information about letters to all word detectors/logogens at once

information only feeds forward from letters to words

each logogen has a threshold level based on (eg) frequency

when activation passes threshold → fire → word recognised

information accumulates from bottom up in one direction: features → letters → words

when enough information accumulates a threshold is passed and letter is recognised (not enough information → no recognition)

high frequency words have lower thresholds for recognition as are recognised faster

what is R and M Interactive activation and competition model

uses parallel activation of letters and words

feedback from words to letters

high frequency words have higher resting levels of activation

all words have the same threshold to cross for recognition

What is the Dual Route Model

Word and letter recognition

Reading regular words out loud

1. Regular words: use most predictable pronunciation based on spelling

Reading irregular words out loud

1. Irregular words: pronunciation is not predictable based on how the word is spelled

whaReading new words

1. 'nonwords' used in experiments (strings of letters)

what happens if there is damage to the lexical system

• Leads to difficulty in reading all words but specifically irregular words

  • Reading occurs via Grapheme Phoneme Conversion

• Ability to read non-words will remain normal

• Expected errors - impairment of irregular words 

  • Percent correct - non-word/regular word reading is good

  • Regularisation errors

what are the 4 types of dyslexia

Surface dyslexia: an acquired type resulting from a brain injury

Phonological dyslexia: acquired from a brain injury

Deep dyslexia: semantic paralexia and damage to semantic system

Developmental dyslexia: learning difficulty affecting skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling

what does developmental dyslexia involve

• Poor reading - slow and inaccurate

• Poor spelling

• Poor comprehension

  • A secondary consequence - due to not being able to read fluently

  • Reading reducing experience

• A continuum

• Not related to intelligence

• Has common co-occurring conditions - ADHD, dyscalculia

• 10% world-wide, occurs in all languages

  • Can be more apparent in languages inconsistent with orthographies (eg English)

what is the aetiology of developmental dyslexia

• Neurobiological origin

• Moderate heritability

• Twice as common in males

• Cause - multifactorial, associated with multiple genes and environmental risk factors

• Children at genetic risk who later become dyslexic look at less books and avoid reading

what is the treatment for developmental dyslexia

• Intensive instruction in phonics, phoneme awareness, word analysis and reading

• Intervention better than remediation

• Alternative therapies lack evidence on effectiveness

what are the theories of developmental dyslexia

1. phonological deficit

2. double deficit

3. magnocellular deficit

4. cerebellar deficit

what is the phonological deficit theory

• Most widely accepted

• Poor phonological awareness (ability to manipulate sounds)

• Poor verbal short term memory - remembering sequences of sounds or letters

• Slow lexical retrieval - ability to name aloud letters or objects rapidly

what is the double deficit theory

• Extension of phonological

• 2 deficits

  • Phonological deficit - related to accuracy

  • Naming speed deficit - related to fluency

    • Naming speed measured by Rapid Automatized Naming

    • Used to diagnose children

what is the cerebellar deficit

• Cerebellum not only for motor skills but also cognitive, including language

• Reduced activation in right cerebellum

  1. Temporal processing deficit

  2. Poor naming speed, time estimation, balance

what did Morton and Frith (1995) propose

a causal model that integrates biological, cognitive, and behavioural levels to explain dyslexia and reconcile competing theories.

what did Morton and Frith conclude about developmental dyslexia

1. four essential components for DD: persistent literacy difficulties, exclusion factors, exposure to evidence based instruction, inclusionary factors

2. four causal theories: phonological, double, magnocellular, cerebellar deficit

3. genetic studies identify dyslexia related genes - DYX1C1, KIAA0319, DDC2, ROBO1

4. neuroimaging showed abnormal magnocellular pathways and cerebellar structures

5. includes phonological processing deficits

6. double deficit theory extends the phonological view by adding rapid automatised naming

7. Both phonological and magnocellular theories are compatible within the three‑level model, indicating that multiple biological and cognitive mechanisms can co‑occur.

what did the psycholinguist Chomsky propose

distinguishes between competence and performance and that grammar is generative

what is competence

speaker-hearer's knowledge of the language

• Allows for grammaticality judgments

  • Grammaticality judgments: capability of saying whether the sentence is grammatically correct or not

    • Not equal to sensicality judgments

    • Not based on rules learned from prior experience or meaning

    • Based on implicit knowledge of the syntactic rules of your language

what is performance

the actual use of language in concrete situations

• Not the same as what is in our competence due to memory limitations

if there are a finite number of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences, what does this mean about grammer

• Cannot store all possible sentences in our heads and can always come up with new ones -> rule governed creativity

• Grammar should be able to generate all possible grammatical sentences but not more

• Each sentence of a language can be described in terms of hierarchical groupings of its constituent words labelled for syntactic category

  • Phrase structure tree

  • On-line incremental parsing - the parser constructs a syntactic structure on the basis of the words as they arrive, based on our syntactic knowledge

What is the Parsing Model

Question of encapsulation: are different sources of knowledge separat components or do they interact?

the Parsing model is made of two parts

1. Modular: serial processing

2. interactive: interactive processing

what is the modular model and accounts

• Syntactic information first and on its own

• Subsequent processing takes other kinds of information into account -> 2 stage

what is the interactive model and accounts

• All information at the same time

how would the parsing model be tested

• Garden path sentences

• Test sentences that can be misinterpreted -> see which structure takes longer -> indicates that a different structure was built first -> shows biases in syntactic processing

why does semantic processing need to be flexible

• so it can deal with the variety of input quickly

• There are an unlimited number of semantic possibilities

what is lexical ambiguity

a word with multiple meanings

what is a homonym

word with 2 unrelated interpretations

what are the older models of lexical ambiguity

• Selective access - context restricts access to contextually appropriate meaning

• Ordered access - activation on basis of meaning frequency, tried against context

• Parallel access - all meanings activated

what do older experiments of lexical ambiguity show

some evidence for multiple access, some for selective access but highly dependent on task

what does the newer research of lexical ambiguity show

Reordered Access Model (Duffy)

• hybrid of exhaustive and selective access models

• prior context can give a contextual boost and increase activation level of one meaning

• homonyms can be biased or balanced, depending on relative frequencies of meaning

• subordinate bias effect

what is lexical polysemy

multiple senses

• Mild case of one to many mapping

  • One word, multiple interpretations (semantically related)

  • Most words

• Comes about due to metonymy: one salient part of an entity is used to refer to the entity as a whole

• Access procedures

  • Literal-first

  • Figurative-first

  • Parallel models

    • Unranked parallel: no hierarchy in activation

    • Ranked parallel: activation level depends on frequency, saliency, basicness

what are pragmatics

the distinction between what a speaker's words literally mean and what the speaker might mean by his words

• Combination of

  • Word meaning for individual words

  • Principle of compositionality

    • Word meanings and how they are combined

  • Inferences

  • Own skill

what assumptions do listener/reader makes assumption about the text

• Coherent - not random words thrown together

• Cohesive - characters/objects remain the same

what are inferences

 the process of developing information that goes beyond the literal meaning of text

what inferences are made

1. Logical - based on word meaning

2. Bridging/backwords inference - related new information to previous information in order to maintain coherence

3. Elaborative/forward inference - extend the text with own world knowledge

   1. Becomes part of our memory of the text

   2. Indistinguishable from original material

what are the approaches about inferences

constructionist: lots of inferences made automatically

minimalist: only a few inferences made automatically

hybrid: search after missing, depends on aim as reader

good enough: a mental shortcut or rule of thumb where the brain stops searching for a solution or choice the moment it finds an option that is “good enough” to meet its immediate goals

what does the constructionist approach suggest

• reader tries to make text coherent both locally (between adjacent clauses) and globally (across whole text)

• Reader explains why actions/events are mentioned

• Numerous elaborative inferences are drawn during reading

what does the minimalist approach suggest

• Only two inference kinds are encoded during reading automatically

  • Those needed for local coherence - connections between sentences that are close together

  • Those based on quickly and easily available information

what does the hybrid approach suggest

• Combination of reading more minimalist or more constructionist

• Depends on reading goals

  • More cursory, faster reading -> minimalist

  • More in-depth, slower -> constructionist

• Drawing inferences can be strategic and might depend on individual differences 

what does the good enough approach suggest

• use this rather than obtaining an in-depth understanding

• language comprehension relies on shallow representations - which are shaped by factors such as sentence frequency, word order, disfluencies, and early infant perceptual abilities, rather than by fully detailed syntactic analysis.

what did Ferreira research about the good enough heuristic suggest

1. Initial misinterpretations of garden‑path sentences persist even after syntactic reanalysis, producing contradictory representations

2. Approximately 25 % of participants judge implausible passive sentences as plausible, relying on world knowledge rather than syntactic cues.

3. Reaction‑time priming studies show that semantic activation can be “good enough” to ignore crucial structural differences.

what individual differences impact comprehension skills

• Less skilled

  • Draw fewer inferences

  • Poorer integration of meaning across sentences

• Related to

  • Differences in verbal working memory

  • Attention

  • Suppression of irrelevant material

    • Suppressing the inappropriate meaning of homonyms

    • Rejecting the incorrect form of homophones

    • Understanding of puns - it hinges on the ability to suppress the contextually more predictable meaning (more difficult for less skilled comprehenders)

what is essentialism

two words with the same referent

• Natural kinds - identity judgments based on innate, essential underlying qualities

• Artefacts - identity judgments based on superficial, perceptual features

what is the theory of mind

the ability to understand that other people can have different views and that their mental representation of the world can be different from the actual ones

• Emerges around 3-4 years old

• Crucial for communication and understanding of language

 

at what age do children develop languages

1. 12 mo: production of first word

2. 15 mo: about 25 words or word fragments

3. 2 yo: about 300 words

4. 5 yo: 10,000-15,000 words

   • 10-20 new words a day

   • Vocabulary spurt, naming explosion

5. 18 yo: 60,000 words

what are the 4 stages of vocabulary growth

babbling: 4-9 mo

one word (holophrastic): 9-16 mo

two ord stage: 18-24 mo

telegraphic stage: 24-30 mo

what is the babbling stage

• Meaningless, speech-like vocalisations

• Simple structure - CV syllables, often reduplicated

• Change in sound discrimination skill: first sounds are universal, not language specific

• Not independent of later speech development

  1. Phonetic content found in babbling overlaps with phonetic preferences in later meaningful speech

what is the one word stage

• Names objects in baby's life

• Early word features:

  1. Nouns - concrete, refer to physical objects they can see/touch

  2. Easy to produce

  3. CV easier than CVC

  4. Deletion and substitution

     1. Finaly consonant deletion (dog -> do)

     2. Consonant cluster deletion (stop -> top)

     3. Stop substitution - replace a fricative with a stop (zebra -> debra)

        1. Fricative: consonant produced with continuous air flow

        2. Stop: consonant where air flow is completely stopped

     4. Fronting - replace a sound with a sound that is made more towards front of mouth (ship -> sip)

  5. High frequency

     1. Say the most relevant words in environment

     2. Important role of demonstrative words amongst the earliest words in most languages

        1. Relation with establishing joint attention with caregivers

what is the two word stage

1. Different from idiomatic/unanalysed chunk expressions

2. Most often nouns, some nouns and some verbs

3. Lack of grammatical markers

4. Beginning of syntax

5. Combining words together -> able to express more ideas at the same time

what is the telegraphic stage

1. Approximately 3 word expressions

2. Absence of function words (the, a), auxiliary words (is, are), prepositions (in, on) and tense morphemes (-ed, -ing)

3. Very quick progression

what is phonology like before birth

• Foetuses hear (impoverished) sounds in the womb

• High frequencies blocked by amniotic fluid

  • Cannot hear individual words but can hear prosody

    • Rhythm, stress, intonation, duration

how is early speech percepted

• Very young infants are predisposed to listen to speech sounds and are aware of fine distinctions between them

how is early speech produced

• Crying, cooing, laughing

  • Involuntary response to emotional states

  • Universal, containing all possible sounds

  • Cooing of deaf children = cooing of hearing children

  • Vocal play occurs (4-7 months)

    • Speech like sounds

    • Vowels before consonants

• Babbling - repetition of syllables

  • Deaf children exposed to sign language babble with hands

  • Babbling is the first universal sound, becomes more language specific later

  • Easy sound (front of mouth) is learned earlier than hard sounds

  • Probably uniquely human

• One word stage (9-18 mo)

  • Slow at first, rapid explosion from 18 mo

  • Children can learn new words for objects after only 1 exposure -> fast mapping

how do infants communicate through ages

• Newborn

  • Head turning to noise

  • Calmed by voice

  • Can discriminate between sounds

  • Prefers mothers voice??

• 1-4 months

  • Smiles, cooing, comfort sounds

  • Laughter at about 4 mo

• 3-9 months

  • Different responses to different intonations

  • Vocal play

  • Babbling - syllable like sequences

• 8-12 months

  • Intentional communication emergers

    • Linked with cognitive development

  • Interpretable reaction to some words

  • Showing, giving, pointing

  • At 12 months they recognise about 50 words

how does parent contribution affect infant communication

Child-directed speech (CDS)/Motherese