BIOL 235 Midterm 2 - Full

between the origin and insertion, which is usually located proximally in limbs ?

Origin

What happens during REVERSE MUSCLE ACTION?

specific movements of the body the actions are reversed THEREFOR the positions of the origin and insertion of a muscle are switched

What is a mechanical advantage using the example of a lever?

if the load is closer to the fulcrum and the effort is farther from the fulcrum only a small about of effort is needed to move the load

Bones serve as levers and joints serve as ________ for the lever

fulcrum

Agonist (Prime Movers) _________ muscles while antagonist ____________ muscles

contract, relax

What are muscles that contract and stabilize the intermediate joints called?

synergists

What is a group of skeletal muscles, their blood vessels, and nerves called?

Compartment

Origin and insertion of the masseter

Origin = maxilla and zygomatic arch

Insertion = angle and ramus of the mandible

What is the origin of the deltoid ?

acromial extremity of clavicle, acromion, and spine of scapula

What are the 3 muscles that make up the hamstring ?

semimebranosous, semitendinosus, biceps femoris

What 4 muscles make up the Quads ?

rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedialis

What do you call a small mass of nervous tissue that is made up primarily of neuron cell bodies?

Ganglia

The somatic nervous system only sends impulses to ________ muscles

skeletal

Fight or Flight is associated with which division of the autonomic nervous system?

Sympathetic

What is the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into an action potential?

electrical excitability

What type of neurons usually have several dendrite and one axon , and are normally found in brain and spinal cord as well as motor neurons?

Multipolar

What type of neurons have one main dendrite and one axon as well as are primarily found in the retina of the eye, inner ear, and the olfactory area of brain?

Bipolar

What type of neurons has dendrites and one axon that are fused together to form a continuous process that emerges from the cell body?

Unipolar or Pseudounipolar

The processes of ________ make contact with blood capillaries, neurons, and the pia mater

astrocytes

What neuroglia has these functions?

1. contain microfilaments that give them strength and allow them to support neurons

2. contributes to the effectiveness of BBB

3.in embyro, they secret chemicals that regulate things

4. help maintain an appropriate chemical environment for nerve impulse generation

5. play a role in hearing and memory

Astrocytes

What neuroglia resemble astrocytes but are smaller and contain fewer processes as well as are responsible fro forming nd maintiang myelin sheath?

Oligodendrocytes

What neuroglia are small cells with slender processes that give them a spine like projections as well as act as phagocytes?

Microglial Cells

What type of neurglia cells are cuboidal and columanr arranged in a single layer that possess microvilli and cilia? they produce and possibly monitor and assist in the circulation of CSF

Ependymal Cells

What are the 2 types of neuroglia in the PNS?

Schwann and satellite cells

What type of motor neuron directly supplies skeletal muscle fibers?

lower motor neurons

What do all of these factors contribute to?

1. unequal distribution of ions in the ECF and cytosol

2. inability of most anions to leave the cells

3. electrogenic nature of the sodium potassium ATPases

Resting membrane potential

Hyperpolarized cells are _______ negative inside ?

More

What mode of travel by which graded potentials die out as they spread along the membrane ?

decremental conduction

What kind of ion channels are found in nearly all cells, including dendrites, cell bodies, and axons of all types of neurons?

Leak channels

What kind of ion channel can be found in pain receptors?

mechanically-gated channels

What refractory period causes voltage gated sodium channel activation gates are open as well as the voltage gated potassium channels are opening and then sodium channels are inactivating?

absolute refractory period

Sodium channels are ______ and potassium channels are ________ during the relative refractory period ?

closed, open

What do we classify based on amount of myelination, diameters, and propagation speeds?

Nerve fibers

What is the largest nerve fiber?

A fibers

What do you call a synapse that goes from an axon to cell body?

axosomatic

What do you call a synapse between 2 axons?

axoaxonic

Synchronization and faster communications are advantages of what?

electrical synapses

Voltage gated channels are located on which synaptic neuron?

the presynaptic neuron

An IPSP is a __________________potential

hyperpoalrizing

What kind of receptor contain a NT binding site and an ion channel from the same protein?

Ionotropic receptor

What are the 2 types of neurotransmitters?

small-molecule NT & neuropeptide

after an injury to a process of a normal peripheral neuron the nissel bodies break down into fine granular masses, what is this called?

chromatolysis

The _____________________ is the space between the dura mater and the wall of the vertebral canal

epidural space

What are the sub layers of the meninges?

subdural space and subarachnoid space

What part of the spinal cord contains somatic motor nuclei which provide nerve impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles?

the anterior (ventral) gray horns

Which gray horns contain autonomic motor nuclei which regulate activity of cardiac and smooth muscle as well as glands?

the lateral gray horns

Dermatomes are areas of skin that provide sensory input to the CNS via the posterior roots of one pair of spinal nerves via the __________ nerve.

trigeminal (V)

direct motor pathways cause _________ movements

voluntary

What are the 5 parts of a reflex arc?

1. sensory receptor

2. sensory neruon

3. integrating center

4. motor neuron

5. effector

What do you call an arrangement where sensory nerve impulses enter the spinal cord on the same side from which the motor nerve impulses leave it?

Ipsilateral reflex

What reflex operates as a feedback mechanism to control muscle tension by causing muscle relaxation

tendon reflex

What are these the functions of ?

1. mechanical protection

2. homeostatic function

3. circulation

Cerebrospinal fluid

What do the medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, and the reticular formation make up?

The brain stem

What carries out these functions?

-control of the ANS

-production of hormones

-regulation of emotion and behavioral patterns and eating and drinking

- control of body temp

-regulation of circadian rhythms and states of consciousness

the dicephalon which consists of the thalamus and the hypothalamus

the pineal gland is part of the ___________ system

endocrine

What are the roles of the epithalamus?

-secrets melatonin via the pineal gland

-regulates blood pressure, fluid balance, hunger, and thirst

_________ are folds that occur due to the gray matter of the cortex enlarging much faster than the deeper white matter

Gyri

What kind of tract contains axons that conduct nerve impulses between gyris in the same hemisphere?

association tracts

what kind of tract contains axons that conduct nerve impulses from gyri in one cerebral hemisphere to corresponding gyri in other cerebral hemispheres? example = corpus callosum

commissural tracts

what is the name of the distorted map of the body located in the primary somatosensory area?

the sensory homunculus

Where is the Broca`s speech area located?

the frontal lobe close to the lateral cerebral sulcus

What brain waves when found in an awake adult represent brain damage?

delta waves

What brain waves disappear during sleep?

alpha waves

What waves normally occur in people experiencing with emotional stress or disorders?

theta waves

How many cranial special sensory nerves are there?

3

how many cranial motor nerves are there?

5

How many cranial mixed nerves are there?

4

These nerves carry axons of sensory neurons and are unique to the head with a cell body located in ganglia outside the brain

special sensory nerves

______________ is the conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the external or internal environement

sensation

These sensory receptors are bare dendrites that lack any structural specialization.

Ex: receptors for pain, temp, itch, tickle

Free nerve endings

What kind of receptors are associated with visceral sensation such as pressure and vibration?

encapsulated nerve ending

the sensation of hearing, visions, smell, taste, touch, pressure, vibration, temperature and pain are all conveyed by ______________

exteroceptors

Where are interoceptors found?

in blood vessels, visceral organs, muscles, and the nervous system

What are the proprioceptors in skeletal muscles that are responsible for monitoring changes in the length of the muscles in stretch reflexes?

muscle spindles

These are located at the junction of a tendon and a muscle

tendon organs

These neurons conduct impulses from somatic receptors into the brain or spinal cord

First-order neruons

These neurons conduct impulses from the brain stem and spinal cord to the thalamus

second-order neurons

These neurons conduct impulses from the thalamus to the primary somatosensory area of the cortex on the same side

third-order neurons

Nerve impulses for touch, pressure, vibration, and conscious proprioception from the limbs, trunk, neck,, and posterior head ascend to the cerebral cortex along the __________________________ pathway

posterior column-medial lemniscus

Nerve impulses for pain, temperature, itch, and tickles ascend to the cerebral cortex along the ________________________ pathway

anterolateral

Nerve impulses for most somatic sensation from the face, nasal cavity, oral cavity etc, ascend tot he cerebral cortex along the ______________________ pathway

trigeminothalamic

The axons of the second order neurons cross to the opposite side of the pons and medulla and then ascend as the ____________________________ tract

trigeminothalamic

Where is the primary somatosensory area located ?

the postcentral gyri of the parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex

These motor pathways provide input to lower motor neurons from axons that extend directly from the cerebral cortex

direct motor pathways

Where is the primary motor area located ?

precentral gyrus of frontal lobe

What are these the functions of ?

-play large role in initiation and termination of movements

- suppress unwanted movements

- influences muscle tone

-influences many aspects of cortical function

Basal Nuclei

What part of the CNS has these functions?

- monitoring intention for movements

-monitoring actual movement

- comparing command signals with sensory information

- sending out corrective feedback

the cerebellum

What are the integrative functions of the cerebrum?

cerebral activities (sleep & wakefulness), learning, memory, emotional response

For arousal to occur ____________________________________ must be stimulated

reticular activating system

What is the deepest stage of REM sleep?

stage 4

What are the first-order neurons in the olfactory pathway?

olfactory receptor cells

Olfactory cilia extend from the dendrites and are sites of ________________________________

olfactory transduction

These olfactory epithelium cells provide physical support, nourishment, electrical insulation, and help detoxify chemicals once in the olfactory epithelium

Supporting cells

Binding of an odorant to an olfactory receptor proteins in an olfactory cilium stimulates a membrane protein called a _________________

G protein

The G protein activates the enzyme _____________________ to produce a substance called cyclic adenosine monophosphate

adenylate cyclase

Which papillae do not contain taste buds?

filiform papillae

What taste threshold is the lowest?

Bitter taste

This is the thin protective mucous membrane composed of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium with numerous goblet cells that is supported by areolar connective tissue

conjunctiva

this is a group of structures that produces and drains lacrimal fluid (tears)

lacrimal apparatus

What is the name of the protective bactericidal enzyme that is found in lacrimal fluid?

lysozyme