Psych of Learning Exam 2

Instrumental conditioning

Learning in which behavior produces a consequence that changes future responding.

Instrumental behavior

Behavior performed because it previously produced a particular outcome.

Law of Effect

Responses followed by satisfying outcomes become stronger; responses followed by annoying outcomes become weaker.

Strengthens SR association through reinforcement

The reinforcer “stamps in” the connection between the stimulus and response.

S–R association

Learned connection between a stimulus context and a response.

Discrete-trial versus free-operant procedures

Discrete trials limit responding to separate trials, while free-operant procedures allow continuous responding.

Operant response

Behavior defined by its effect on the environment rather than by the exact movements used.

Response–reinforcer contingency

The extent to which reinforcement depends on the response

Magazine training

Teaching an animal that the food-delivery signal predicts food.

Shaping

Teaching a new behavior by reinforcing gradual steps toward the final response.

Successive approximations

The gradual response steps used during shaping.

Positive reinforcement

A response produces an appetitive stimulus and responding increases.

Positive punishment

A response produces an aversive stimulus and responding decreases.

ex- A student talks during class and receives extra homework, so they talk less

Negative reinforcement

A response removes or prevents an aversive stimulus and responding increases.

You buckle your seat belt and the annoying warning sound stops, making you more likely to buckle your seat belt next time.

Negative punishment / omission training / DRO

A response removes or prevents an appetitive stimulus and responding decreases.

A child breaks a rule and loses video-game privileges, so they are less likely to break the rule again

Escape versus avoidance

Escape terminates an aversive event already occurring; avoidance prevents the event from occurring.

Response variability versus stereotypy

Reinforcement can increase either variation among responses or repetition of similar responses.

VAR, YOKED, and U-values

VAR reinforces variability, YOKED receives reinforcement without a variability requirement, and U-values measure variability.

Belongingness

Some responses are easier to condition because they naturally fit with particular reinforcers.

Instinctive drift

Natural species-typical behaviors interfere with the response the organism is being trained to perform.

Behavior systems theory

Instrumental behavior is influenced by organized species-typical systems, such as feeding and foraging.

Reinforcer quantity, quality, and prior experience

Reinforcer effectiveness depends on its amount, desirability, and comparison with previous rewards.

Behavioral contrast

The value of a reinforcer changes because of previous experience with a higher- or lower-value reinforcer.

Anticipatory negative contrast

A current reward becomes less valuable because the organism expects a much better reward afterward.

Temporal contiguity

The closeness in time between a response and its reinforcer.

Delay of reinforcement

Reinforcement becomes less effective when it occurs long after the response.

Credit-assignment problem

With delayed reinforcement, the organism has difficulty determining which response caused the reinforcer.

Marking and clicker training

A brief conditioned reinforcer or signal immediately identifies the correct response during a delay.

Superstitious behavior

Behavior that increases even though it does not actually control the reinforcer.

Adventitious reinforcement

Accidental pairing of a response with reinforcement.

Terminal versus interim responses

Terminal responses occur near the next reinforcer; interim responses occur earlier in the interval.

Learned-helplessness effect

Exposure to uncontrollable aversive events disrupts later instrumental learning.

Learned-helplessness hypothesis

Uncontrollable events teach the organism that its behavior does not control outcomes.

Attention-deficit hypothesis

Inescapable shock impairs later learning because the organism pays less attention to its own responses and feedback.

Escapable versus inescapable shock

Escapable shock can be terminated by responding; inescapable shock cannot be controlled by responding.

Schedule of reinforcement

Rule determining which responses produce reinforcement.

Continuous versus partial reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement reinforces every response; partial reinforcement reinforces only some responses

Ratio versus interval schedules

Ratio schedules depend on response number; interval schedules depend on time passing.

Fixed-ratio schedule—FR

A fixed number of responses is required for each reinforcer.

Variable-ratio schedule—VR

A changing number of responses is required for each reinforcer.

Fixed-interval schedule—FI

A fixed amount of time must pass before a response can produce reinforcement.

Variable-interval schedule—VI

A changing amount of time must pass before a response can produce reinforcement.

Post-reinforcement pause and ratio run

FR schedules produce a pause after reinforcement followed by a rapid, steady ratio run.

Ratio strain

Responding breaks down when the response requirement is increased too much or too quickly.

FI scallop

Responding gradually increases as the end of a fixed interval approaches.

Inter-response time—IRT

Time between successive responses.

Feedback function

Relationship between response rate and reinforcement rate.

explains how much your response rate affects your reinforcement rate.

Ask:

If I respond faster, will I earn reinforcers faster?

• why VR caused increased responding

Why VR produces vigorous responding

VR schedules reinforce rapid responding and allow faster responding to produce more reinforcement.

Concurrent schedule

Two or more reinforcement schedules operate at the same time, allowing the organism to choose between them.

Relative rate of responding and reinforcement

Proportion of total responses or reinforcers associated with one alternative.

Matching law

Relative responding tends to match relative reinforcement.

Generalized matching law

Explains deviations from matching using sensitivity and response bias.

Sensitivity

How strongly responding reflects differences in reinforcement rates.

Undermatching versus overmatching

Undermatching reflects reinforcement differences less strongly than predicted; overmatching reflects them more strongly.

Response bias

Preference for one alternative caused by factors other than reinforcement rate, such as effort or reinforcer attractiveness.

Molar versus molecular theories

Molar theories examine overall behavior across long periods; molecular theories examine individual choices and short periods.

Melioration theory

Organisms shift toward the alternative producing the better local rate of reinforcement.

Local versus overall reinforcement rate

Local rate is calculated over time spent on one option; overall rate is calculated across the entire session.

Concurrent-chain schedule

Choice schedule with an initial choice link followed by a terminal link.

Choice link versus terminal link

The choice link determines which option is selected; the terminal link contains the actual reinforcement schedule.

Self-control versus impulsiveness

Self-control chooses a larger delayed reward; impulsiveness chooses a smaller immediate reward.

Delay discounting

The subjective value of a reward decreases as the delay before receiving it increases.

Discounting rate

How quickly an individual’s valuation of delayed rewards decreases.

Training self-control

Self-control can be developed through gradual delay increases, delayed-reward practice, and distraction during the delay.

Associative structure versus response allocation

The associative approach (molecular) explains behavior through learned connections; the response-allocation (molar) approach explains how behavior is distributed among available activities.

S, R, and O

Stimulus context, instrumental response, and response outcome.

S–R association and habits

Contexts can automatically trigger previously reinforced responses, producing habits.

S–O association

The stimulus context becomes associated with the expected outcome or reward.

Two-process theory

Instrumental behavior is influenced by both Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental conditioning.

Pavlovian–instrumental transfer—PIT

A Pavlovian CS changes the performance of an independently learned instrumental response.

PIT three-phase design

Instrumental training, Pavlovian CS–outcome training, and a transfer test.

Response interactions and sign-tracking

Pavlovian responses elicited by a CS can interfere with or support the instrumental response.

Conditioned emotional states versus reward-specific expectancies

A CS may produce a general emotional state or an expectation of a specific reward.

R–O association

Learned connection between a response and the outcome it produces.

Reinforcer devaluation

Making a reinforcer less desirable to test whether behavior depends on an R–O association.

Hierarchical S(R–O) relation

The stimulus context activates the relevant response–outcome relationship.

Three-term contingency

The relationship among stimulus, response, and outcome: S → R → O.

Response allocation

Distribution of behavior among the activities available to the organism.

Premack / differential probability principle

A high-probability behavior can reinforce a low-probability behavior.

Response-deprivation hypothesis

Restricting access to a behavior below its normal level can make that behavior reinforcing.

Behavioral economics and the behavioral bliss point

Behavior changes when schedule restrictions alter the organism’s preferred activity allocation; the bliss point is the preferred allocation without restrictions.

Minimum-deviation model

The organism chooses the response allocation closest to its preferred bliss point.

Demand curve

Relationship between the price of a reinforcer and how much of it is obtained.

Elasticity of demand

How strongly consumption decreases when the price or response requirement increases.

its very elastic is it changes. If it doesn’t like with buying gas, its inelastic

Substitutes

Alternative reinforcers that reduce demand for the original reinforcer.

Income level

Amount of time or responses available for obtaining reinforcers.

Complementary commodities

Reinforcers that are normally used together.