chapters 1-8 exam

Structuralism

Wundt. Break experience into its parts using introspection.

Functionalism

William James. Asks what mental activity is for (adaptation).

Psychoanalysis

Freud. The unconscious mind drives behavior; uses dream analysis and free association.

Gestalt psychology

Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler. The whole is more than the sum of its parts.

Behaviorism

Watson, Skinner. Study only observable behavior.

Humanism

Maslow and Rogers. Focus on human potential for good.

Maslow

Proposed the hierarchy of needs.

Rogers

Unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy in therapy.

Cognitive revolution

1950s shift back to studying mental processes.

PhD vs. PsyD

PhD = research emphasis. PsyD = applied/clinical practice emphasis.

Milgram study

Obedience to authority; nearly 2/3 gave apparently lethal shocks.

Wilhelm Wundt

Founded the first psychology lab (Leipzig, 1879); structuralism.

William James

First American psychologist; functionalism; also used introspection.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis; unconscious; dream analysis, free association, slips of the tongue.

John Watson

Father of behaviorism; Little Albert experiment.

B. F. Skinner

Operant conditioning; operant conditioning chamber ('Skinner box').

Introspection

Examining your own conscious experience; used by Wundt and James.

Psychology (definition)

The scientific study of mind and behavior.

Before psychology was a science

Questions about the mind were handled by philosophers.

American Psychological Association (APA)

Professional organization representing psychologists in the United States.

Biopsychosocial model

Perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual's health.

Dissertation

Long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate's doctoral training.

Empirical method

Method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities.

Ology

Suffix that denotes 'scientific study of'.

Personality trait

Consistent pattern of thought and behavior.

PhD

(doctor of philosophy) doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences.

Postdoctoral training program

Allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field.

Psychoanalytic theory

Focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior.

PsyD

(doctor of psychology) doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research-oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context.

Theory

Well-developed set of ideas that explains observed phenomena.

Hypothesis

Tentative, testable, falsifiable prediction about variables (often if-then).

Naturalistic observation

Watching behavior in its natural setting. Risk: observer bias.

Observer bias

Observations skewed to match the observer's expectations.

Archival research

Uses past records or existing data sets.

Cross-sectional research

Compares different groups (e.g., ages) at a single time.

Longitudinal research

Follows the same people repeatedly over a long time.

Attrition

Participants dropping out of a study over time.

Reliability

Consistency/reproducibility of a result.

Validity

Whether a test measures what it is meant to measure.

Reliability vs. validity

A valid measure is always reliable; a reliable measure is not always valid.

Inter-rater reliability

Agreement among observers on how they record events.

Peer review

Experts evaluate a study before it is published.

Replication

Repeating a study to check whether findings hold.

IRB

Institutional Review Board: approves research with human participants.

IACUC

Reviews research proposals involving animals.

Informed consent

Participants learn risks, know it is voluntary and confidential, then agree.

Independent variable

The variable the researcher manipulates (the cause).

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured (the effect).

Correlation does not equal causation

Only an experiment can show cause and effect.

Positive vs. negative correlation

Positive: variables rise together. Negative: one rises as the other falls. r runs from -1 to +1.

cause-and-effect relationship

Changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

clinical or case study

Observational research study focusing on one or a few people

confirmation bias

Tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

confounding variable

Unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

control group

Serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups

correlation coefficient

Number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

debriefing

When an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

deception

Purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

deductive reasoning

Results are predicted based on a general premise

double-blind study

Experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

empirical

Grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

experimental group

Group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance

experimenter bias

Researcher expectations skew the results of the study

fact

Objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research

falsifiable

Able to be disproven by experimental results

generalize

Inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

illusory correlation

Seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists

inductive reasoning

Conclusions are drawn from observations

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants

operational definition

Description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

opinion

Personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate

participants

Subjects of psychological research

peer-reviewed journal article

Article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication

placebo effect

People's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

population

Overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

positive correlation

Two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

random assignment

Method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

random sample

Subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

replicate

Repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research's reliability

single-blind study

Experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group

statistical analysis

Determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

survey

List of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people

Genotype

An individual's genetic makeup (inherited DNA)

Phenotype

Observable characteristics (hair color, height, etc.)

Allele

A specific version of a gene

Epigenetics

How the environment affects gene expression (same genotype, different phenotype)

Range of reaction

Genes set limits; environment determines where in that range you fall

Dendrite

Receives incoming signals from other neurons

Axon

Carries the signal away from the cell body

Myelin sheath

Fatty insulation that speeds signals along the axon

Synapse

Gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the next neuron

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger released into the synapse

Acetylcholine

Muscle action and memory

Dopamine

Mood, sleep, learning, reward

Serotonin

Mood and sleep

GABA

Calming; decreases anxiety and tension

Glutamate

Learning and memory

Norepinephrine

Alertness and arousal (heart, intestines)

Beta-endorphin

Pain relief and pleasure