Key Concepts in U.S. Government and Constitution

Democracy

A system of government in which political power ultimately belongs to the people.

Natural rights

Rights people possess simply because they are human; government does not create them.

Social contract

The idea that people agree to establish government in exchange for protection and order.

Popular sovereignty

The principle that government gets its power from the people.

Consent of the governed

The idea that government is legitimate only when people agree to its authority.

Limited government

A government whose powers are restricted by law and the Constitution.

Republicanism

The principle that citizens elect representatives to govern on their behalf.

Representative democracy

A system in which citizens elect officials to make political decisions.

Constitutionalism

The principle that government must follow constitutional rules and limits.

Rule of law

The principle that everyone, including government officials, must obey the law.

Individual liberty

Freedom to think, speak, believe, and act within legal limits.

Equality

The principle that people should have equal political standing and equal protection under the law.

Civic participation

Actions citizens take to influence government, such as voting or contacting representatives.

Declaration of Independence

The 1776 document announcing separation from Great Britain and explaining the principles of natural rights and consent of the governed.

Unalienable rights

Rights that cannot legitimately be taken away, such as life and liberty.

Pursuit of happiness

A natural-rights ideal in the Declaration of Independence referring to people's freedom to pursue their own well-being.

Participatory democracy

A model emphasizing broad citizen involvement in political decision-making.

Pluralist democracy

A model in which interest groups compete to influence government policy.

Elite democracy

A model in which a relatively small group of influential people has substantial political power.

Direct democracy

A system in which citizens vote directly on policies or decisions.

Indirect democracy

A system in which citizens elect representatives to make decisions.

Interest group

An organized group that tries to influence public policy.

Political participation

Activities through which people attempt to influence politics or government.

Faction

A group united by an interest or passion that may conflict with others' rights or the public good.

Majority rule

The principle that decisions are made according to the preference of more than half of the participants.

Minority rights

Protections that prevent the majority from unfairly violating the rights of smaller groups.

Federalist

A supporter of ratifying the Constitution who generally favored a stronger national government.

Anti-Federalist

A critic of the proposed Constitution who feared excessive national power and wanted stronger protections for individual rights and state authority.

Separation of powers

The division of government authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Checks and balances

A system in which each branch can limit certain actions of the other branches.

Individual rights

Freedoms and protections belonging to individuals that government must respect.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, protecting individual liberties.

Republic

A government in which political authority is exercised through elected representatives under established laws.

Large republic

A representative government with a large population and territory that Madison argued would make domination by a single faction more difficult.

Federalist No. 10

James Madison's essay arguing that a large republic and representation can help control the dangers of factions.

Brutus No. 1

An Anti-Federalist essay arguing that the proposed Constitution would create an overly powerful national government and threaten liberty.

Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. framework of government, which created a relatively weak national government.

Confederation

A political arrangement in which states retain most authority and the central government has limited power.

Unicameral legislature

A legislature consisting of one chamber.

Shays' Rebellion

An uprising by Massachusetts farmers in 1786-1787 that exposed weaknesses in the national government.

Taxation

The collection of money by government to fund public services and programs.

Interstate commerce

Trade or economic activity between states.

National defense

The protection of a country against external threats.

Constitutional Convention

The 1787 meeting in Philadelphia that produced the U.S. Constitution.

Amendment

A formal change to a constitution or other legal document.

Ratification

The formal approval of a document or proposal.

Main weakness of the Articles of Confederation

The national government could not effectively tax, regulate interstate commerce, or enforce national laws.

Why was there no national executive under the Articles?

The Articles did not establish a separate executive branch to enforce national laws.

Why was amending the Articles difficult?

All thirteen states had to agree to an amendment.

How many states had to approve major legislation under the Articles?

Nine of the thirteen states.

5. Ratification and Constitutional Compromises

Federalist Papers

Essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to encourage ratification of the Constitution.

Virginia Plan

A proposal for a stronger national government with representation in Congress based largely on population.

New Jersey Plan

A proposal favoring equal state representation in a unicameral Congress.

Great Compromise

The agreement creating a bicameral Congress with population-based representation in the House and equal state representation in the Senate.

Connecticut Compromise

Another name for the Great Compromise.

Three-Fifths Compromise

An agreement counting three-fifths of the enslaved population for representation and direct taxation, increasing slaveholding states' political power.

Bicameral legislature

A legislature with two chambers.

Enumerated powers

Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution.

Expressed powers

Another term for enumerated powers; powers explicitly granted in the Constitution.

Implied powers

Powers reasonably inferred from the Constitution's expressed powers.

Concurrent powers

Powers shared by national and state governments.

Reserved powers

Powers retained by the states or the people rather than delegated to the national government or prohibited to the states.

Necessary and Proper Clause

The constitutional clause allowing Congress to make laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers; also called the Elastic Clause.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI provision establishing the Constitution and valid federal laws as the supreme law of the land.

Commerce Clause

The constitutional provision granting Congress authority to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among states, and with Native American tribes.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Article IV provision requiring states generally to recognize other states' official records and judicial proceedings.

Privileges and Immunities Clause

Article IV provision restricting certain forms of discrimination by a state against citizens of other states.

Extradition

The return of a person accused or convicted of a crime to the state where the relevant legal proceedings are taking place.

Federalists' position on ratification

They supported the Constitution and argued that a stronger national government was necessary.

Anti-Federalists' position on ratification

They feared centralized power and demanded additional protections for individual rights.

Why was the Bill of Rights added?

To protect individual liberties and address concerns about the power of the new national government.

Popular sovereignty

Government authority comes from the people.

Limited government

Government can exercise only powers permitted by the Constitution and law.

Separation of powers

Government authority is divided among three branches.

Checks and balances

Each branch has ways to restrain the actions of other branches.

Federalism

Constitutional power is divided between national and state governments.

Republicanism

Citizens govern indirectly through elected representatives.

Rule of law

Everyone, including government officials, is subject to the law.

Judicial review

The power of courts to determine whether government actions or laws violate the Constitution.

Constitutional supremacy

The Constitution takes precedence over conflicting laws and government actions.

Veto

The president's formal rejection of a bill passed by Congress.

Override

Congress's power to enact a bill over a presidential veto with a two-thirds vote in each chamber.

Impeachment

The formal accusation of misconduct against a federal official by the House of Representatives.

Bicameralism

The division of a legislature into two chambers.

Constitutional amendment process

The formal procedure for changing the Constitution.

Legislative branch Congress;

makes federal laws, controls federal spending, and oversees the executive branch.

Executive branch

The president and executive agencies; enforce federal laws.

Judicial branch

The federal courts; interpret laws and resolve legal disputes.

Congressional veto override

A two-thirds vote in both the House and Senate that can enact a bill despite a presidential veto.

Federalist No. 51

Madison's essay explaining how separation of powers and checks and balances help prevent abuses of government power.

Federalist No. 70

Hamilton's essay arguing for an energetic and effective single executive.

Federalist No. 78

Hamilton's essay defending an independent judiciary and discussing judicial review.

Federalism

A system that divides constitutional authority between national and state governments.

National government

The government responsible for governing the United States as a whole.

State government

A government exercising authority over an individual state, subject to the U.S. Constitution.

Delegated powers

Powers granted to the national government by the Constitution.

Reserved powers

Powers retained by the states or the people under the Tenth Amendment.

Concurrent powers

Powers exercised by both national and state governments.

Exclusive powers

Powers belonging only to one level of government.