GEOG 302 - Midterm 2

actors

the individuals / organisations / grps that participate in/influence envral governance

state, non-state, or hybrid

state actors

gov departments & regulatory agencies

non-state actors

NGOs, indigenous communities, private companies, intl orgs, civil society

hybrid actors

public-private partnerships, multi-stakeholder coalitions

processes

mechanisms & procedures through which decisions are made, actions implemented, & outcomes monitored/revised

institutions

formal & informal rules, norms, & structures that guide behaviour & influence/shape envral decision-making 

• Can be legal bodies, org frameworks, or social conventions 

policies

principles, rules, & guidelines adopted by govs / institutions to direct envral actions & decision-making 

regulatory, market-based, or voluntary

regulatory policies

emission limits, land use zoning

market-based policies

carbon pricing, renewables subsidies

voluntary policies

corporate social responsibility programs, sustainability certifications

bycatch

non-target species unintentionally caught & discarded

leads to ecological waste & harms marine biodiversity

• tech & equipment made in attempt to reduce, but reluctance to implement & use as it costs resources to do so

carbon footprint

renewable:

• low once operational

• some emissions from equipment installation, mfg, & transport

non-renewable:

• fossil fuels high due to CO2 & CH4 emissions (extraction, processing, transport, combustion(

• nuclear energy lower, but emissions from mining, refining, & plant decommissioning

climate change

long-term alterations in average patterns of earth’s atmospheric & oceanic conditions

• natural or anthropic factors

climate change adaptation

adjusting human/natural systems in response to actual/expected climate change effects

aims to minimize climate change while taking advantage of potential opportunities

strategies included: infrastructure resilience, coastal protection, education & awareness

climate change mitigation

efforts to reduce/prevent GHG emissions to limit global warming & associated impacts

strategies included: transition to renewables, improved energy efficiency, sustainable practices, behavioural & policy changes

climate projections

scientific models estimating future climate conditions (temp, precipitation, sea level) under diff. GHG emission scenarios

• evidence base to assess future

• may be used to anticipate how climate hazards change over time & plan adaptation measures accordingly

• level of uncertainty, hard to predict

command & control

traditional EM strategies, aim to predict & control natural systems w/ top-down regulation & fixed rules

• small body makes decisions for everyone

• gov sets specifc standards/limits & enforces compliance thru legal mechanisms

• central feature of Canadian envral policy for decades

community-based adaptation (CbA)

local communities at center of planning & decision-making

emphasizes local knowledge, values, & priorities 

• esp. important to support socially & geographically vulnerable populations

• Participatory planning & co-design

• Use local & indigenous knowledge

  • Empowerment & equity 

consultation vs consent

consultation: Canadian Crown has duty to consult & (when appropriate) accommodate Indigenous grps when contemplating actions that affect their rights

consent: FPIC under UNDRIP

• right to approve/reject on Indigenous lands

• not legally enforceable

corporate social responsibility (CSR)

corporation’s voluntary commitment to managing business processes responsibly & sustainably

• balances economic growth w/ envral protections & social wellbeing

• corporations have responsibilities to society beyond legal compliance

includes: envral stewardship, ethical governance, & community engagement

all actions !equal, greenwashing

corporations have sig. impacts, positive or negative

demand-side management (DSM)

focus on controlling & optimizing energy consumption on user side, rather than solely incresing production

aims to balance energy S&D more efficiently, reduce peak demand, & improve energy grid reliability (load shifting, demand reduction & response programs, smart tech incorporation, support to integrate renewable energy)

examples: time-of-use pricing, energy efficiency programs, real-time demand response, dynamic pricing models

demand-side management: benefits

• cost savings

• enhanced grid reliability & stability

• envral benefits

• energy security

ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA)

use of biodiversity & ecosystem services to help communities adapt to climate change impacts

• emphasizes restoration, conservation, & sustainable exosystem management as tools to reduce climate risks

• look at local ecosystems

example: wetlands & water quality

ecosystem-based management (EBM)

incorporates entire ecosystem, including humans, into resource management decisions 

• Looks at whole ecosystem, rather than one/some specific species 

• Guided by adaptive management strategy 

• Promotes ecosystem health while balancing human needs 

energy efficiency

aims to reduce energy use while maintaining/enhancing quality of services

• more efficient energy: decreases costs, lowers emissions & reduces demand on energy systems

  • thus essential for both envral sustainability & economic competitiveness 

• Critical component of energy management strategies

energy efficiency strategies

• Retrofitting & energy efficient building design 

• Industrial optimisation

• Improvements to transport sector

• Smart grids & demand response

• Policy & incentives

energy poverty

when households struggle to afford/access energy needed for basic needs (i.e. heating, cooling, lighting, & powering appliances)

• Can manifest as high energy costs relative to income, inadequate heating/cooling, or utility disconnections

environmental (green) gentrification

process where improvements to urban envrs (i.e. adding green spaces / reducing pollution) unintentionally leads to increased property values & living costs, displacing lower-income residents 

• entire neighbourhoods of people can be pushed out of their homes 

environmental governance (EG)

system of laws/rules, institutions, practices, & processes that guide how societies manage their relationship w. natural resources & the envr

• Governance !necessarily government 

fisheries & oceans Canada (DFO)

primary federal department responsible for managing Canada's marine & anadromous (salmon) fisheries, oceans, & navigable inland waters (large rivers), including fish habitat protection under the Fisheries Act 

• Regulates commercial, recreational, & indigenous fisheries

• Oversees aquaculture, marine conservation, & fish habitat restoration 

• Conducts scientific assessments of fish stocks & aquatic ecosystems

• Manages co-governance agreements & Indigenous fishing rights

• Leads to intl fisheries obligations 

global warming

increase in overall average global temperature

• Climate change = all ways increase changes characteristics of climate & weather (precipitation, storms, droughts, etc) 

  • Global warming = one part of climate change 

• Consecutive anomalies - past 14 months of consecutive global record heat 

  • Hottest year records being broken every ~3 yrs 

• Overall consensus that climate change is happening and it is human-caused

greenhouse effect

process thru which heat = trapped near Earth's surface by GHGs

• blanket effect on earth 

just transition

ensure workers, communities, & Indigenous Peoples !left behind as economies decarbonise

• Alberta & Saskatchewan, rely heavily on oil & gas

• Unplanned can cause job loss, social dislocation, & economic collapse in resource-dependent communities 

just transition: federal & provincial initiatives

Canada’s Just Transition Plan: not yet finalized but consultations have occurred

Sustainable Jobs Act (Bill C-50) tabled in 2023: aims to support workers via reskilling, job creation, & community investment 

indigenous water rights

inherent rights to water, grounded in Treaty rights, Aboriginal title, & customary law, although they are not always respected or adequately recognized 

• Additionally, Treaty & Aboriginal rights to hunt, fish, & access traditional waters are constitutionally protected under Section 35 of Constitution Act, 1982

• Indigenous-led water governance growing through initiatives: 

  • Co-governance agreements 

  • Indigenous Guardian programs (similar to rangers; focus on education & informing public, leaders, & policy makers)

  • Legal assertions of Indigenous water law rooted in traditional ecological knowledge & governance systems 

• Water insecurity critical issue on reserves

  • Jurisdictional confusion between federal & provincial governments over responsibility for infrastructure & water services in Indigenous communities 

  • Ongoing legal & political struggles for recognition of water rights & self-determination in water governance 

individual quotas (IQs) & individual transferable quotas (ITQs)

allocate fixed share of TAC to individual fishers / vessels / companies

• may be transferable, creating quasi-property right in the fishery (ITQs)

• Used extensively in Atlantic groundfish, Pacific halibut, & offshore fisheries 

Issues: large fishing groups buy off a lot fo smaller ones, only end up with a few grps that can fish because they buy up all the quotas 

informational instruments

aim to raise awareness & encourage envrally conscious behaviour by providing info to public

• ecolabelling, envral reporting, awareness campaigns

integrated water resources management

coordinated holistic approach to managing water, land, & related resources to max social & economic welfare w/o compromising ecosystem sustainability 

• Cross-sectoral coordination

• Participatory planning

• Basin-scale thinking

• Sustainability focus 

includes watershed-based governance models!

intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) AR6 Adaptive Framework

presents global adaptation framework grounded in risk-based, inclusive, & systems-oriented appraoches

• Climate risk = hazard x exposure x vulnerability 

• Adaptation options must be: effective, feasible, equitable, & context-specific

• Focus on transformational adaption (overall systemic issue, underlying problems)

  • Funding, time, technology 

  • Address vulnerability 

• Recognizes limits of adaptation 

lifecycle assessment (LCA)

systematic method to evaluate envral impacts of a service, product, or process throughout entire life cycle 

Considers every stage of a product/process/service's life (raw material extraction to production, distribution, use, & disposal/recycling)

goal: identify opportunities to reduce envral impacts at every stage of the product/process/service's life & improve sustainability 

stages: 

• Raw material extraction 

• Production / mfg

• Distribution & transportation

• Use

• End-of-life 

marine protected areas (MPAs)

Spatial areas of oceanic waters (saltwater, not freshwater) with restrictions on them

• Can be fully protected (most stringent / strict regulations): all fishing banned, very limited recreation & transportation 

• Can be limitations (less stringent): can't fish during certain times, can only fish certain species 

Along Canada's coasts, federally mandates, primarily in the North 

market based instruments (MBIs)

use economic signals/incentives/fines to encourage envrally friendly practices / discourage harmful ones

includes: carbon pricing, congestion charges, subsidies / tax incentives, tradable permits 

mining act & permitting processes

Each province has own mining legislation & permitting systems (ie. Ontario's Mining Act) 

Covers: 

• Staking & claim registration 

• Exploration & advanced exploration (?)

• Mine development, operation, & closure

• Usually progressive rehabilitation, financial assurance requirements, & monitoring obligations 

mining reclamation & closure challenges

once mining ends, site must be stabilized, made safe, & ideally stored to some beneficial use 

challenges: contamination, unstable tailings / waste rock piles, lack of vegetation / biological recovery, ongoing acid mine drainage, v. huge sites

100s of abandoned mines in Canada

non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

independent entities operating outside gov. control

• Advocate for sustainable practices, influence policy-making, hold stakeholders accountable for envral impact

• Crucial in advancing EM & shaping envral policies 

non-renewable energy

derived from ancient biological matter/minerals, have limited reserves, form over millions of years, unsustainable in LR

• Coal, oil, natural gas, & nuclear 

high carbon footprints

finite renewability, hard to replace when depleted

high impacts across lifecycle (extraction, transport, waste management)

Pacific Salmon Crisis

current decline of adult salmon populations

causes:

• Habitat loss & degradation (growing urban areas encroaching adjacent regions, pushing agricultural land further out; implications for runoff & pollution)

• Overfishing

• Fish farms (often found in same habitats as wild population, still interactions with some local fish; problem: fish farms have higher rates of diseases that can be introduced to wild populations)

• Hatcheries (meant to boost populations, but reduces genetic diversity, increasing problems in LR)

consequences:

• Economic: hole groups of people dependent on salmon for their livelihoods

• Ecosystem: important part of food chain, esp. for endangered orcas

• Anadromous: move from ocean water (saltwater) upstream to freshwater 

  • Known to move material & nutrients in this process, important for envr

  • Populations dependent on these nutrients also disappear 

• Indigenous culture & communities: spiritual as well as cultural 

  • Ramifications for food security, traditional practices, and overall cultural identity 

  • Several hundreds of indigenous groups 

efforts to revive population: 

• Habitat restoration (locally, as well as climate change processes)

• Many groups coming together, including indigenous groups, gov.s, local fishers

  • Over 30 working towards rebuilding population in BC, work together & independently 

  • Huge problem, more of a movement, becoming a big deal 

• Many new mandates, etc attempting to better manage the problem 

policy-based (soft) measures

non-physical

• Land-use planning

• Insurance reform

• Early warning signs

regulatory instruments

involve mandatory regulations enforced by gov to reach envral goals

includes: zoning & land-use regulations, building codes, emission standards

renewable energy

naturally replenish, most produce minimal GHGs, (as a whole) more sustainable than fossil fuels

• Solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal 

low footprint once operational, some emissions from installation, mfg, transport

rely on continuous natural processes, not exhaustible

• biomass renewable when properly managed

lifecycle impacts largely associated w/ production & installation

• hydropower has long lifecycle impacts

risk assessments

structured processes that identify, analyze, & prioritise climate change risks for ecosystems, infrastructure, communities, & economies 

• Helps decision makers understand most likely & damaging risks to prioritise adaptation actions (what hazards are exposed, vulnerability & potential consequences) 

stock assessments, monitoring, & enforcement

scientific analyses estimating size, structure, & health of fish population

• informs decisions on how much can be sustainably harvested

• Works w/ tracking of fishing activity, effort, & compliance in real time

• Ensures compliance w/ fisheries rules 

• Highly variable depending on where you are 

assessment: evalutation (used to determine TAC - based on studies of fish pop.s)
monitoring: once fishing season is underway (monitor ppl & stock)

enforcement: ppl-centric, when fishing !in right area or overfishing, can stop fishing season if needed

overfishing & stock collapse

• unsustainable practices led to collapse of key fish stocks 

• Indigenous vs. commercial fisheries conflicts: arise when constitutionally protected Indigenous fishing rights intersect w/ regulated commercial & recreational fisheries 

  • Some may allow to fish outside restricted area, but unclear if they really have permit/access

structural (hard) measures

physical

ie: sea walls, green infrastructure, building codes

supply-side management (SSM)

focus on optimizing production, distribution & availability of energy from supply end

• aims to increase efficiency, diversify energy sources, & ensure reliable/supply while balancing envral impacts 

  • Diversification of energy sources

  • Expansion of renewable energy 

  • Grid modernisation 

  • Energy storage solutions 

  • Decentralized & distributed generation 

  • Reducing transmission & distribution losses 

Reduces dependency on 1 source ! will likely still feel effects, but minimized 

supply-side management: benefits

• Enhanced energy security & reliability 

• Reduced envral impact

• Support for renewable integration

• Cost savings & economic stability

supply-side management: examples

• Upgrading power plants

• Integrating energy storage

• Distributed renewable generation 

• Improved transmission infrastructure

sustainable urban environmental management

balance urban dev w/ envral protection by promoting practices that reduce cities’ ecological footprint

• needed to address envral challenges posed by rapid urbanisation

  • As cities expand, pressure on natural resources/ecosystems & infrastructure increases

    • May lead to pollution, habitat destruction, resource depletion 

tailings

waste materials that contain toxi substances used in mineral processing as a result of mines

when imporperly managed, can fail/leak

Taku River Tlingit vs. BC (2004)

Mine & proposed road connecting went thru Tlingit First Nations territory 

Consulted, but !consent 

• Repeatedly opposed throughout project 

• but BC approved, company fulfilled duty to consult 

  • No legal duty to consent 

First Nations brought case to court 

• Federal gov agreed w/ provincial, but suggested changes be made to EIA process req.s bcuz of unaddressed issues in this case

• Started lots of discussion on how to work w/ Indigenous communities 

duty to accommodate gradually implemented more since this case, if conducted today same outcome likely would not happen (shift in view of Indigenous rights)

transboundary waters

any kind of water body crosses a boundary between Canada and another country, primarily with the US (share Great Lakes, watersheds, river basins) 

• 2 other transboundary waters: Denmark (Greenland - Kennedy Channel) & France (St. Pierre & Miquelon south of Newfoundland) 

total allowable catches (TACs)

max amount of a specific fish species that can be harvested from a commercial stock during a fishing period

• Set annually, biannually, or seasonally based on scientific advice on stock's status

uncertainty & climate change

climate projections are hard to predict, come w/ a level of uncertainty

urban adaptation

process of making LR changes to urban planning, infrastructure, & governance to adjust to envral changes (making it more prepared) 

• Climate-resilient infrastructure

• Water, heat management

• Sustainable energy & low-carbon dev

• Urban food security & agriculture 

urban enironmental management

managing envral issues in densely populated, built environments

urban heat island effect

urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas 

• Primarily due to heat-absorbing properties of urban surfaces (i.e. concrete, asphalt) as well as reduced vegetation & limited airflow in cities 

• Susceptibility to heatwaves 

  • Depends on access to air conditioning, tendency for power outages, access to green spaces / pools / splashpads

  • Correlation with median income (more affluent tends to be less vulnerable) 

urban planning

designing city layouts, includes allocation of land for residential, commercial, industrial, & recreational use

• Aims to create functional, sustainable, & liveable urban spaces while minimizing envral impact of urban growth 

tool for urban envral gov

urban resilience & adaptation

capacity of cities to withstand, recover from, & adapt to envral challenges

urban resilience

ability of a city to absorb & bounce back from shocks & stresses, w/o compromising core functions

• Infrastructure resilience

• Disaster risk reduction

• Social & economic resilience

• Ecosystem-based resilience 

urbanisation

population shift from rural to urban

• Process where rural areas transform into urban ones, resulting in growth & expansion of cities

• Shifts in social & economic activities often lead to centralisation of services, housing, & industries 

• Can have significant envral, social, & economic impacts 

• Population mostly rural throughout history, until early 2000s (globally)

  • In Canada, have much space but primarily urban (80%)

    • Both urban & rural population growth

    • Fastest rural population growth in G7, though not as fast as our urban population

    • Unevenly happening (most rural growth in Nunavut, most rural decline in NF&L) 

voluntary agreements & partnerships

non-mandatory arrangements where stakeholders (i.e. industries, local governments, & communities) commit to certain envral goals 

• Green certification programs

• Public-private partnerships

• Ecodistricts & sustainability initiatives 

Walkerton Water Crisis

health disaster, drinking water contaminated with ecoli

led to serious illnesses & sudden deaths

wells improperly sealed / managed

lead to public inquiries & sweeping reforms of Ontario’s drinking water

• source water protection, water treatment, inspection, testing, distribution, & drinking water

• formla training for water managers

• replaced/reworked/improved much infrastructure

several went to jail, tho some didn’t stay long

watershed-based governance models

shift authority & planning from administrative to ecological (watershed) boundaries, enabling more ecologically coherent & collaborative management 

• Thinking of water resources from birdseye view to better manage them 

• Examples: BC Watershed Boards, Ontario Source Water Protection Committees

• Challenges: some resistance because already have different water management systems in place

zoning & land-use regulations

critical tools in urban EM, help cities regulate land use, urban sprawl, promote sustainable dev & mitigate envral impacts of urbanisation 

• Through urban planning & zoning laws, cities can design spaces that balance envral conservation w/ economic growth & community dev 

zoning laws

regulations determining how to use land in diff parts of city

• Divide urban areas into residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural, & recreational zones

• Ensure orderly urban dev, promote public health 7 safety, & safeguard envr 

intl envral agreements

treaties/accords btwn countries to address global envral problems & promote sustainable dev

includes:

• United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

challenges:

• compliance & enforcement

• scientific uncertainty / disagreement

• envral & governmental complexity

• differences in interests / priorities

• justice & equity

• funding & resources.. etc

envral governance structure in Canada

mainly divided btwn federal (cross-border pollution, contamination) & provincial (land-use, natural resources)

lots of overlap!

also local roles (water resource, recycling, waste management, zoning, infrastructure & PT, community engagement, etc)

envral governance key actors in Canada

federal departments

provincial & territorial ministries

indigenous gov.s & co-management boards

municipalities / local authorities

case study: plastic microbeads

significant issue, Environmental Defence NGO worked w/ gov & public to educate on issues

• policy implemented to ban them in Canada

collaborative / co-governance approaches

envral decision-making w/ multiple stakeholders (gov.s, communities, Indigenous grps, etc) work together to manage resources & envr issues

emphasizes shared authority, joint decision-making, & mutual accountability

market-based instruments (MBIs)

tools to encourage individuals & businesses to adopt more sustainable practices via economic incentives, opposed to direct regulation

make it financially beneficial to reduce envral impacts by leveraging market signals (i.e. prices, taxes, tradeable permits) to influence behaviour!!

meant to promote efficiency & innovation by internalizing envral costs of economic activities

includes: carbon pricing, subsidies & incentives, pollution charges & fees, tradeable permits/quotas, deposit-refund systems, payment for ecosystem services

market-based instruments: advantages

flexible

cost-effective

generates revenue

innovation incentive

market-based instruments: challenges

setting appropriate prices / caps

distributional impacts

monitoring & enforcement

market-based instruments in Canada

carbon-pricing (carbon tax & cap-&-trade)

• federal carbon pricing (carbon tax)

• cap & trade in Quebec

subsidies & incentives for renewables

case study: Patagonia

example of corporate social responsibility

• active engagement in envral activism, visible supplly chain, commitment to carbon neutrality

environmental governance: challenges

• Fragmentation & lack of integration

• Inadequate compliance & enforcement

• Slow response to emerging issues

• Short-term focus

• Insufficient public participation

• Inclusion & equity challenges

• Limited financial resources

• Insufficient consideration of ecosystem services

climate change: causes

natural forces: !directly related to humans

• volcanic activity, solar variability, etc

anthropogenic forces: primarily concerned w/ creation of or lack of removal of GHGs

• burning fossil fuels, deforestation, industrial activities, etc

key GHGs

• Carbon dioxide

• Methane

• Nitrous oxide

• Fluorinated gases

climate change: risks

envral: rising temps & sea levels, extreme weather, ocean acidificiation, etc

ecological: species distribution, biological event timing, agricultural systems, habitat & biodiversity loss, etc

socioeconomic: economic loss, food & water insecurity / scarcity, displacement, widening inequality, etc

*overlap

climate change: in Canada

internal displacement: due to natural disaster, primarily Indigenous peoples

permafrost: much in Canada, can melt, huge infrastructural implications (collapses, unstable)

changing sea level: rising lots in Maritimes & NWT, some along west coast

case study: BC wildfires

compared wildfire seasons from 1919-2016 (more spread out small fires) & 2017+ (much larger burning areas)

2023 fire season conditions: v. hot & dry, much fuel available to burn due to bans

• warmer temp, dryer, droughts (all in same NE region)

• extremely hard to get under control

• one of BC’s most expensive natural disasters ever

shift in wildfire management as a result:

• small prescribed burns to keep fuel from accumulating

• more preventative, rather than reactive, action

role of governments in Canadian climate adaptation

multi-jurisdictional (federal, provincial, municipal, Indigenous) w/ distinct but overlapping responsibilities

• federal: sets national policy direction, provides funding, supports research

• provincial & territorial: natural resources, land planning, emergency response

• municipal: local water systems, zoning, infrastructure

• indigenous: exercise inherent governance rights, hold deep ecological knowledge

case study: costa rica

intl recognition for envral conservation efforts, aimed to become one of first carbon-neutral countries

• amplifies how smaller nations can lead climate action

almost entirely renewable electricity, half of all energy

• oil still in transport sector

• primarily hydropower

• overall GHGs trending drastically downwards, to hit net zero by 2050 or earlier

imperfect system, carbon neutral !no emissions

climate change: challenges & barriers

funding

capacity gaps

governance fragmentation

uncertainty & timescales

equity

climate change: equity

mitigation equity: wealthier nations & companies take larger cost share to reduce GHGs

• can include financing clean energy transitions in developing countries & fair policies to ensure just transition

equitable adaptation: prioritising resources for those w/ highest risk of climate impacts via financial & tech support from more developed nations

envral impacts of energy development

GHGs & climate cahnge

habitat fragmentation & biodiversity loss

water use & contamination

air pollution & health risks

case study: Iceland

able to quickly & effectively transition to renewables

• low population

• abundant geothermal & hydropower resources

• early infrastructure investment

• strong gov support & policy

mining envral impacts

land disturbance, deforestation, degradation

water contamination & tailings

GHG emissions, energy use

case study: Mulgrave-et-Derry, QC

mine closed in 1970s, no one to contact

sitting there & filling with water over time

tourist spot, but not official / managed / safe

main issue: heritage item, can’t tear it down

mining jurisdiction

primarily provicinial, but federal gov plays role in most major projects when they:

• cross provincial / intl boundaries

• impact Indigenous rights

• impact areas of federal jurisdiction (i.e. fisheries, species at risk)