Politics 9 Markers USA (Paper 2)

Three informal powers of the US president

Executive orders – Presidents direct federal agencies without needing a new Act of Congress.

Executive agreements – Presidents make international agreements without the full treaty ratification process.

Bully pulpit – Presidents use media attention and public speeches to influence public opinion and Congress.

Three factions within the Democratic Party

Progressives – Support greater economic redistribution, stronger welfare and policies such as Medicare for All.

Moderates – Support gradual reform and a more centrist approach to economic and social policy.

Conservative Democrats – Often favour lower spending and more moderate policies, traditionally represented by groups such as the Blue Dog Coalition.

Three ways rational theory explains relationships between executives and legislatures

Re-election – Politicians support policies they believe will help them win future elections.

Policy preferences – Presidents, PMs and legislators pursue policies that match their own political objectives.

Strategic cooperation – Executives negotiate with legislators when cooperation helps achieve their goals, rather than simply imposing decisions.

Three factors influencing presidential election outcomes

The economy – Voters may punish presidents for poor economic performance.

Candidate image – Leadership, personality and communication skills influence voter decisions.

Campaigning – Advertising, fundraising and campaigning in swing states can affect results.

Three functions of US Congress

Legislation – Congress debates, amends and passes federal laws.

Representation – Members represent the interests of their constituents.

Oversight – Committees investigate government departments and scrutinise the president.

Three ways structural theory studies protection of rights in the US and UK

Constitutions – The US has an entrenched Bill of Rights, while the UK relies on different constitutional sources, including the Human Rights Act.

Judiciaries – The US Supreme Court can strike down unconstitutional laws; UK courts can issue declarations of incompatibility under the Human Rights Act.

Separation of powers – The US has stronger formal separation between branches, whereas the UK has greater executive-legislative overlap.

Three functions of national nominating conventions

Selecting candidates – Officially confirms the party's presidential and vice-presidential candidates.

Party platform – Establishes the party's policy priorities for the election.

Party unity – Gives factions an opportunity to unite behind the chosen candidates.

Three factions within the Republican Party

Traditional conservatives – Support lower taxation, limited government and free markets.

Religious conservatives – Prioritise traditional social values, including opposition to abortion.

Populist conservatives – Support nationalism, immigration restrictions and an America First approach.

Three ways structural theory studies legislative processes in the US and UK

Bicameralism – Both systems have two chambers, but the US Senate and House have more equal legislative power than the UK Lords and Commons.

Committee systems – Committees scrutinise bills and influence their development.

Party structures – US parties have weaker legislative discipline, while UK whips exert stronger control over MPs.

Three factors influencing voting behaviour in the US

Party identification – Many voters consistently support the party they identify with.

The economy – Voters may reward or punish the president based on economic performance.

Candidate characteristics – Personality, experience and leadership image can influence voter choices.

Three ways other branches constrain executive power

Congress – Controls spending and can investigate or impeach the president.

Supreme Court – Can declare presidential actions unconstitutional.

Senate – Confirms appointments and ratifies treaties, limiting presidential freedom of action.

Three ways rational theory explains legislative voting in the US and UK

Re-election – Legislators vote in ways they believe will satisfy voters and protect their seats.

Party interests – MPs and members of Congress may support party policies to maintain political influence.

Personal policy goals – Politicians may vote according to their own ideological beliefs and preferred outcomes.

Three principles of the US Constitution

Federalism – Power is divided between the federal government and individual states.

Separation of powers – Legislative, executive and judicial powers are divided between separate institutions.

Checks and balances – Each branch has powers to limit the authority of the others, preventing excessive power.

Three policy differences between Republicans and Democrats

Economy – Republicans generally favour lower taxation and less regulation; Democrats generally support greater economic intervention.

Healthcare – Democrats generally support expanding government healthcare provision, while Republicans favour a larger private-sector role.

Social issues – Democrats generally support abortion rights, while Republicans are more likely to support restrictions.

Three ways cultural theory studies pressure groups in the US and UK

Political values – Cultural attitudes influence whether people believe campaigning and collective action are important.

Group participation – Different political cultures encourage different levels of pressure group membership and activism.

Access and influence – Political traditions influence whether governments are receptive to particular pressure groups.

Three roles performed by US congressional committees

Legislative scrutiny – Committees examine bills and suggest amendments before legislation reaches the full chamber.

Oversight – Committees investigate federal departments to ensure government actions are appropriate.

Investigations – Committees hold hearings and question officials, exposing government failures.

Three ways the US political system encourages pressure group activity

First Amendment – Protects freedom of speech, assembly and petition, allowing groups to campaign.

Separation of powers – Multiple branches provide different opportunities to influence policymaking.

Federalism – Groups can target state governments as well as the federal government, increasing opportunities for influence.

Three ways rational theory explains voting behaviour in the US and UK

Economic self-interest – Voters choose parties they believe will improve their financial position.

Retrospective voting – Voters judge parties based on their previous performance in government.

Prospective voting – Voters choose parties based on the future policies they believe will benefit them.

Three reasons the USA has a two-party system

First-past-the-post – Rewards the largest party in each congressional district, disadvantaging smaller parties.

Electoral College – Makes it difficult for third-party candidates to win presidential elections.

Party identification – Strong Democrat and Republican identities encourage voters to remain loyal to the two major parties.

Three ways the Bill of Rights protects civil rights and liberties

First Amendment – Protects freedom of speech, religion, press and peaceful assembly.

Fourth Amendment – Protects citizens against unreasonable searches and seizures.

Fifth and Sixth Amendments – Protect due process and the right to a fair trial.

Three ways structural theory studies selection of US and UK Supreme Court members

Appointment systems – US presidents nominate judges, whereas UK appointments use an independent selection process.

Legislative involvement – The US Senate confirms Supreme Court nominees, while the UK Parliament has no equivalent confirmation vote.

Institutional differences – US judicial appointments are more openly political, whereas UK appointments place greater emphasis on independent merit-based selection