social psyc exam 2

4 main functions of self

self-knowledge, self-esteem, self-control, impression management

self-knowledge

organizing what we know about ourselves

self-esteem

maintaining positive self-views

self-control

regulating behaviors and making plans

impression management

presenting ourselves to others

self-concept

overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes

how does self-concept change

changes with age

origin of self-concept

self-awareness

self-awareness

self-recognition

what age do humans begin self-recognition

18-24 months

experiment to test self recognition in babies

mirror test, see if they recognize themselves in mirror

self recognition in non-humans

• chimps and apes can recognize

• used mirror test with red mark on face

early concepts of self-concept

• appearance (my name is)

• possessions (i have a)

• everyday behaviors (i ride bike)

what age do humans sense own personality traits

age 5

3 sources of self-knowledge

• introspection

• observations of own behavior

• other people (direct feedback, comparison)

introspection

process of looking inward to examine thoughts, feelings & motives

self-perception theory

under certain conditions, we observe own behavior & make judgements about ourselves

example of self-perception theory

• do you like classical music

• never listened to it growing up but listened to it yesterday on radio

self-awareness theory

inward focus triggered & become self-focused & evaluate ourselves

self-awareness theory vs internal standards

• if meet our standards → pride

• if fall short → discomfort

self-awareness theory (pride vs discomfort)

• pride: continue behavior or maintain effort

• discomfort: change behavior to reduce gap or escape self-awareness

harmful ways of escaping the self

• substance use

• compulsive behavior

• constant technological distraction

healthy ways of escaping the self

• art or creativity

• religion or spirituality

• mindfulness

• reading

• acts of service (shifting focus toward others)

difference between healthy & harmful escapes of self

• degree (moderate vs excessive)

• flexibility (choice vs compulsion)

• function (coping vs chronic avoidance)

self focus not always aversive

• enjoyment or pride with success

• reminder of sense of right and wrong

self-esteem

overall opinion about whether you’re good or bad, worthy or unworthy

low self esteem

• dissatisfaction with life

• hopelessness

• depression

• lower satisfaction with relationships

inflated or fragile self esteem

• arrogance

• narcissism

• overly positive but unstable self-view

sociometer theory

• humans evolved need to belong

• inclusion = survival, rejection = risk of harm

• self-esteem evolved to warn when belonging is threatened

• conformity, apology, impression management function to regain inclusion

self-esteem as sociometer

• monitor inclusionary status

• activate social pain

• restore inclusionary status

3 strategies of sociometer management

• affiliative/repair strategies

• avoidant/protective strategies

• reputation management

affiliative/repair strategies

• seeking reassurance

• self-deprecating humor

• displaying loyalty

• conforming to group norms

• prosocial behavior

avoidant/protective strategies

• social withdrawal

• preemptive rejection

• strategic alliances

reputation management

• changing self-presentation

• increased social monitoring

• public displays of group alignment

how can we understand ourselves through emotions

by observing our behavior

two factor theory of emotion

• experience physiological arousal

• seek appropriate explanation for it

“suproxin” study research question

given same degree of physiological arousal, will people “feel” different emotions depending on the environment?

IV and DV in suproxin study

• IV1: physiological arousal

• IV2: environmental cues

• DV: participant’s mood

suproxin study

• told real, wrong or no side effects for adrenaline

• in waiting room with euphoric or angry confederate

• what emotion did each group feel

which group was more emotional in suproxin study

the uninformed and the misinformed group caught the confederate’s mood

which group was less emotional in the suproxin study

the informed group realized it was “just a shot”

criticisms about suproxin study

• effect size small

• researchers had trouble replicating euphoria effects

• people injected with drug under false story → ethics issue

misattribution of arousal

people mistake interferences about what is causing their emotions

summarize capilano bridge study

participants tested if people would call or not call attractive woman right after crossing or after they rested

when do we engage in social comparison

• no objective standard to measure against

• when uncertain about what to do

with whom do we compare ourselves

• initial comparisons = anyone who is available

• for accuracy = others who are similar to us on that dimension

additional motives on social comparison theory

• self-improvement

• self-enhancement

upward and downward social comparisons

• upward comparison: compare to people better for motivation or inspiration

• downward comparison: compare to people who are worse to boost self-esteem

what comparison if the goal is improvement

upward comparison

what comparison if the goal is feeling better

downward comparison

what did Wang find about social media social comparison

• more upward social comparisons

• lower self-esteem

• lower-well being

impression management

conscious or unconscious process through which people try to control the impressions other people form of them

impression management strategies

ingratiation = flattering, praising, trying to make ourselves more llikable

self-handicapping

• form of impression management

• create or claim obstacles in advance so if we don’t do well, have something to blame other than our ability

behavioral self-handicapping

getting drunk night before the test

reported self-handicapping

complaining about not feeling well when take a test

fake modesty

bragging masked by a complaint or humility

example of fake modesty

i am so tired of being the only person the boss can trust

impression management strategies

fake modesty

why is fake modesty used

• elicit sympathy & impress others

• usually ineffective (seen as insincere)

online identities for impression management

• present different version of self to others

• selectively present aspects of ourselves

• curate what others see

online identities effect on others

• idealized images can encourage upward social comparison

• shift perceptions of what is “typical” or normal

online identities effects on self

• comparing our actual self with idealized online self

• increase dissatisfaction or pressure to maintain idealized image

• encourage further self-monitoring and curation

cognitive dissonance

discomfort that comes when a person holds inconsistent cognitions

explain the prophecy that failed (Festinger)

• small cult believed world would end and they’d be rescued by saucer

• once saw no saucer coming, started becoming distressed and uncertain

• finally concluded that destruction was called off because of lack of faith

explain cognitive dissonance with Festinger study

• cognition / belief 1: world will end on specific date

• cognition / belief 2: i have acted on belief

• reality: world did not end

• all these inconsistencies caused cognitive dissonance

ways to reduce cognitive dissonance

• change behavior

• add new cognitions

• change cognition or reduce its importance

example changing behavior to reduce cognitive dissonance

• i smoke (behavior) & smoking is dangerous (belief) = dissonance

• i dont smoke anymore & smoking is bad for my health = behavior & belief no longer dissonant

example changing cognition to reduce dissonance

• modify belief so it fits behavior

• i smoke & my grandfather smoked and lived to 90 = dissonance goes down

adding new cognitions to reduce dissonance

justifying the behavior to make it reasonable

example of adding new cognitions to reduce dissonance

• smoking helps reduce stress

• helps me concentrate

• i deserve something to relax me after work

reducing importance of dissonance

minimize how much risk matters

example of reducing importance to reduce dissonance

• life is short anyway

• everything can cause cancer

• people so worse things

what strategies to people often use to reduce dissonance

• multiple dissonance reduction strategies at once

• mix and match to make behavior or cognition feel justified

dissonance and self-concept

reduce dissonance by adding cognition about other positive attributes

post-decision dissonance

• chosen alternative has some negative aspects

• rejected alternative has some positive aspects

example of post-decision dissonance

• choosing between two apartments

• sign lease for A → it was larger and great lighting

• B was cheaper and closer but ALSO see yourself as someone who makes smart decisions

reducing post-decision dissonance

• play up the chosen option

• play down the rejected option

• change what “counts”

what causes more dissonance

more important decisions & greater permanence

lowballing

strategy to increase compliance

why lowballing works

• provides illusion of irrevocability

• backing out would create dissonance & disappointment

what moral emotions often accompany cognitive dissonance

guilt and shame

justification of effort

tendency for people to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain → protects self-concept

justification of effort observational study

• in Mauritius

• hindu festival

• low ordeal = singing & prayers, high ordeal = pierced hooks

• when asked to donate to temple, men in severe ordeal donated more

counter attitudinal behavior

acting against your private attitude

counter attitudinal advocacy

one kind, saying something you dont believe

justifying counter attitudinal behavior

• external justification: reason for behavior separate from your attitude toward act

• internal justification: change one’s attitude or behavior

does telling a polite lie cause much dissonance

believing it is important not to hurt others provides enough external justification for having told lie to reduce dissonance

insufficient justification study

• participants asked to tell next participant task was enjoyable

• $20 large external justification → sufficient

• $1 small external justification → insufficient

doing favor for someone you like does what for dissonance

does not arouse dissonance

dissonance theory on favors

if do favor for someone we dislike, like them more

why do we like someone more if we do favor for them if w originally didn’t like them

behavior & attitude = dissonance

change attitude to resolve dissonance

justifying favors study

• participants played fake contest that was rigged, all won money after

• were approached after to return money and see reaction

who liked researcher most in justifying favors study

people approached by researcher to return money

factors that increase aversiveness of dissonance

• higher proportion of dissonant vs consonant elements

• stronger/long-held beliefs

• more serious consequences for being wrong

• greater public commitment

public commitment dissonance example

• Garry publicly claimed that no computer could defeat him

• lost to Deep Blue creating cognitive dissonance

• to reduce dissonance → questioned legitimacy of everything

self-persuasion

long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification

you return wallet and get a thank you or $200 reward, when are you more likely to view yourself as good

small reward → internal justification → lasting change

thank you

insufficient punishment

creates dissonance when person doesn’t receive adequate external justification for resisting something they desire

forbidden toy study threat of mild punishment

• changed attitudes

• forbidden toy rated less attractive

• external justification insufficient