politics, media, democracy & international organisations

Why did women become politically important in Rwanda after 1994?

• 1994 genocide: Women comprised approximately 70% of the population.

• Women became essential to rebuilding the nation.

• 2003 Constitution: Introduced a 30% gender quota for elected positions.

What were the outcomes of increased female political representation in Rwanda?

• Women held 64% of parliamentary seats (world record).

• Reforms promoted equal access to land ownership.

• Labour laws promoted equal pay.

How are women underrepresented in news coverage?

• Men dominate expert coverage of business, politics and economics.

• Women appear more often in stories about accidents, domestic violence and disasters.

• AFJ (2006): Only 17% of stories quoted women.

What statistics demonstrate gender stereotypes in the media?

• Women appeared as victims in 1 in 14 cases (men: 1 in 21).

• Women appeared in family contexts in 1 in 5 cases (men: 1 in 16).

• Hillary Clinton: Described as "witchlike" over 50 times (male politicians rarely receive superstition based insults)

Why did the US seek to ban TikTok?

• ByteDance: Beijing-based company behind TikTok and Douyin.

• US feared China could access Americans' sensitive data.

• ByteDance denied Chinese government ownership of user data.

What were the potential consequences of banning TikTok?

• Over 7 million US small businesses used TikTok.

• Generated approximately US$15 billion in business revenue (2023).

• Ban could hurt businesses, content creators and employment.

Why did Donald Trump change his stance on TikTok?

• Gained approximately 15.6 million followers.

• Platform helped him reach younger voters.

• Shifted towards supporting TikTok during the 2024 presidential election.

How did social media facilitate youth activism during the South Asian Spring (2023–2025)?

• Gen Z-led protests occurred in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines and Timor-Leste.

• TikTok, Discord and Twitter spread political grievances.

• Platforms helped organise demonstrations and mobilise supporters.

What triggered Nepal's Gen Z protests in September 2025?

• "Nepo Kids" trend: Exposed political elites' lavish lifestyles.

• Fuelled anger over corruption and inequality.

• 4 September: Government banned 26 social media platforms, including Facebook, Snapchat and YouTube.

• Ban was widely perceived as silencing criticism.

What were the consequences of Nepal's Gen Z protests?

• 56% of population under 30 → high youth social-media engagement.

• 8–9 September: Tens of thousands protested; report 73 deaths.

• Parliament and government buildings attacked.

• PM KP Sharma Oli resigned; Sushila Karki became interim PM (milestone in female representation)

What happened during the Brexit referendum (2016)?

• UK voted on whether to leave the European Union (EU).

• Leave campaign highlighted EU financial contributions, immigration and sovereignty.

• Outcome: 51.9% Leave; 48.1% Remain.

How did populism and misinformation influence Brexit?

• Populist messaging appealed to economic dissatisfaction and national identity.

• Social media spread misinformation and emotional political appeals.

• Some voters relied on simplified claims rather than detailed economic arguments.

How did economic concerns contribute to Brexit?

• Disputes over EU membership fees and trade regulations.

• Concerns about employment and economic security.

• Desire for greater British control over economic policies.

What were the consequences of Brexit?

• Healthcare: Immigration issues made it harder for the NHS to recruit staff.

• Trade: New customs procedures and trade barriers affected businesses.

• Economy: Greater administrative costs and economic uncertainty.

How did the ICJ resolve the Pedra Branca dispute?

• Singapore and Malaysia both claimed sovereignty over Pedra Branca.

• Submitted dispute to International Court of Justice (ICJ) instead of military conflict.

• 2008: ICJ ruled Pedra Branca belonged to Singapore.

What reasons did Putin give for invading Ukraine in 2022?

• North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) expansion: Russia perceived Western military influence near its borders as a threat.

• Claimed to protect ethnic Russians in eastern Ukraine (Donbas region).

Why was the UN ineffective in stopping Russia's invasion?

• Russia is one of the P5: US, UK, France, China and Russia.

• Russia possesses veto power in the UNSC.

• Can block substantive Security Council resolutions directed against itself.

How does the Russia–Ukraine War illustrate expansionist ambitions?

• Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022.

• Sought to preserve or expand influence over former Soviet territories.

• Challenged Ukraine's sovereignty and Western alignment.

What structural limitations prevent the UN from enforcing peace?

• M — Military: No standing military; relies on member states.

• S — Sovereignty: National sovereignty restricts intervention.

• V — Veto: P5 veto power can obstruct collective action.

Why has the UN struggled to resolve the Israel–Palestine conflict?

• UN ceasefire calls have not consistently stopped military operations in Gaza.

• US vetoes have blocked some proposed UNSC measures against Israel.

• Unresolved territorial and political disputes cause renewed hostilities.

What factors contribute to the Israel–Palestine conflict?

• H — Historical: Competing historical and national claims.

• R — Religious: Religious significance of disputed territories.

• T — Territorial: Disagreements over land, sovereignty and statehood.

How do political alliances undermine UN effectiveness in the Israel–Palestine conflict?

• Powerful states may protect strategic allies.

• Political interests can obstruct binding humanitarian measures.

• Pew Research: Israelis reported particularly unfavourable perceptions of the UN.

How does UNRWA demonstrate the effectiveness of international organisations?

• United Nations Relief and Works Agency: Supports Palestinian refugees.

• Provides education, healthcare and social assistance.

• Delivers humanitarian assistance even when political disputes remain unresolved.

How does EU decision-making lead to political gridlock?

• Certain major EU decisions require unanimous agreement.

• Hungary and Poland (2023): Adopted anti-LGBTQ+ policies, EU efforts to penalise them were blocked by the unanimity rule.

• Consensus requirements can obstruct collective responses.

• Weakens enforcement of shared values and human rights.

How did the WHO contribute to the COVID-19 response?

• D — Data: Coordinated international data sharing and health advisories.

• V — Vaccines: Facilitated vaccine research and cooperation.

• C — COVAX: Supported vaccine access for developing countries.

What is the Paris Climate Agreement (2015)?

• Nearly 200 countries joined efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

• Conference of the Parties (COP): Annual meetings under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

• Countries review climate progress, negotiate agreements and establish commitments.

Why is the Paris Agreement difficult to enforce?

• Countries prioritise national interests over global commitments.

• US: Withdrew under Donald Trump.

• Germany: Energy-security concerns encouraged reliance on natural gas.

• Many countries struggle to meet climate targets.

How did the South China Sea dispute expose ASEAN's limitations?

• ASEAN relies on consensus (mushiwara) and confidence-building measures.

• Cambodia blocked a unified ASEAN statement concerning China's territorial claims.

• Weakened ASEAN's influence over regional security issues.

Why has ASEAN struggled to intervene in Myanmar genocide?

• ASEAN follows the principle of non-interference.

• Avoids intervention in members' domestic affairs without collective approval.

• Limits its ability to respond decisively to human rights abuses.

What happened during the India–China conflict in 2020?

• Indian and Chinese forces clashed at the Galwan Valley border.

• Territorial confrontation intensified diplomatic tensions.

• India imposed restrictions affecting Chinese businesses, investment and trade.

How did the India–China border conflict affect economic relations?

• India sought to reduce dependence on China.

• Introduced economic restrictions to protect domestic interests.

• Trade tensions increased alongside military and diplomatic rivalry.

Why is the South China Sea strategically important?

• S — Shipping: Important international shipping routes.

• M — Military: Strategic military access and territorial control.

• R — Resources: Valuable natural resources and maritime claims.

How does Brexit exemplify nationalism?

• Nationalism prioritises national identity, interests and sovereignty.

• Leave campaign emphasised British control over laws, borders and economic policies.

• Mobilised support for independence from EU institutions.

How did Donald Trump use populism during his presidential campaigns?

• 2016 and 2020: Positioned himself as an outsider challenging political elites.

• Used social media to target discontented voters.

• Employed anti-establishment messaging and emotional rhetoric.

How does the US Congress demonstrate partisanship?

• Strong allegiance to a particular political party or ideology, sometimes prioritising party loyalty over objective judgment.

• Strong polarisation between Republicans and Democrats.

• Politicians frequently vote along party lines.

• Party loyalty can obstruct compromise and create legislative gridlock.

How did Rodrigo Duterte, Philippines (2016–2022) exemplify a demagogue?

Demagogue: Leader who exploits public fears and emotions to gain support.

• War on Drugs (2016): Promised a harsh crackdown on drugs, gaining widespread public support.

• Consequences: Over 12,000 Filipinos reportedly killed, mostly the urban poor, amid allegations of extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances.

• Human Rights Watch: Reported that police falsified evidence to justify unlawful killings.

• Inflammatory rhetoric: Justified violent anti-drug measures, raising concerns over human rights and the rule of law.