Native American Cultures, Mesoamerican Civilizations, and African Societies Overview

Native Americans

Indigenous peoples of the Americas whose ancestors migrated from Asia.

Bering Land Bridge

Land bridge that connected Asia and North America and allowed early migration into the Americas.

Megafauna Extinction

The disappearance of many large animals caused by a combination of climate change and human activity.

Three Sisters

Corn (maize), beans, and squash; the foundation of agriculture for many Native American societies.

Geography and Culture

Climate and environment influenced Native American economies, lifestyles, and cultures.

Arctic

Extremely cold region where Native peoples relied heavily on hunting and fishing.

Subarctic

Cold region where people primarily relied on hunting, fishing, and gathering.

Pacific Northwest

Region rich in natural resources, especially fish; associated with the potlatch.

Potlatch

Ceremonial feast and gift-giving tradition among peoples of the Pacific Northwest.

Plateau Indians

Native peoples of the inland Northwest who relied on fishing, hunting, and gathering.

Great Basin

Dry region where Native peoples relied heavily on hunting and gathering.

Great Plains

Region strongly associated with buffalo and both nomadic and sedentary Native groups.

Southwest Indians

Native peoples associated with Pueblo communities, mesas, canyons, and agriculture.

Pueblos

Settled Native American communities of the Southwest that built permanent homes and practiced agriculture.

Mississippian Culture

Native culture known for large settlements and mound building.

Cahokia

Large Mississippian settlement near present-day St. Louis known for its enormous earthen mounds.

Northeastern Woodlands

Region containing groups such as the Iroquois, Algonquin, and Huron.

Iroquois

Confederation originally consisting of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Cayuga.

Tuscarora

Group that later joined the Iroquois Confederacy, making six nations.

Kinship Networks

Family and clan relationships that were important to Native American social organization.

Trade

Important part of Native American economies; connected different regions and cultures.

Olmecs

Early Mesoamerican civilization famous for its giant stone heads.

Toltecs

Mesoamerican civilization that influenced later groups, including the Aztecs.

Mayans

Mesoamerican civilization known for cities, writing, calendars, and complex societies.

Aztecs

Mesoamerican empire known for conquest, tribute, human sacrifice, and Tenochtitlan.

Tenochtitlan

Capital of the Aztec Empire, built on islands in Lake Texcoco.

Incas

Large South American empire that used quipus for record keeping.

Quipu

System of knotted cords used by the Incas to keep records and numerical information.

Human Sacrifice

Religious practice used by some Mesoamerican societies, including the Aztecs.

Ceremonial Ballgame

Religious and cultural game played by several Mesoamerican civilizations.

Central America Technology

Central American civilizations did not use draft animals and had limited use of wheeled transportation.

Arawaks / Taíno

Caribbean Indigenous peoples who lived mainly on larger islands and used hammocks.

Caribs

Caribbean Indigenous peoples who lived on many smaller islands; European claims of cannibalism are debated.

Caribbean Indians

Among the first Indigenous peoples to encounter Europeans and suffered catastrophic population losses afterward.

Asia and America

Filipinos, Japanese, Chinese, and Hawaiians all had historical connections to the Americas.

Filipino Sailors

Filipinos who traveled to the Americas on Spanish ships.

Filipino Louisiana Settlement

Filipino communities settled in Louisiana in the 1760s.

Chinese Laborers

Chinese immigrants became an important part of the American workforce during the 1800s.

Africa

Continent containing many different cultures, ethnic groups, languages, economies, and political systems.

North Africa

Region connected to the Mediterranean world and home to Berber and other peoples; later strongly influenced by Arabs and Islam.

Sub-Saharan Africa

African region south of the Sahara containing many diverse cultures and societies.

Sahara

Large desert separating North Africa from much of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Sahel

Transition zone immediately south of the Sahara that became an important trade region.

Sudan

Historical region south of the Sahara containing important African kingdoms and trade networks.

Rainforest/Jungle

Dense tropical environment that made travel and communication more difficult.

Iron Age

A period when African societies increasingly used iron technology for tools and weapons.

West Africa

Region with major urban settlements, trade networks, kingdoms, and diverse cultures.

Islam in West Africa

Islam spread south of the Sahara through trade and became influential in many West African societies.

African Political Fragmentation

Africa contained many separate political and ethnic groups rather than one unified society.

Sahel Trading Kingdoms

Powerful states that developed around trade routes across the Sahel.

Forest Kingdoms

Political states that developed in the forest regions of West Africa.

Kingdom of Congo

Important Central African kingdom located around the Congo River region.

Mandinka

West African people associated with trade, storytelling traditions, Islam, and major West African states.

Asante

West African kingdom associated with the Golden Stool.

Golden Stool

Sacred symbol of the Asante people representing their nation and political unity.

Igbo

West African people known historically for farming and decentralized political organization.

Fulani

West African people known for herding, trade, Islam, and Islamic political movements.

Fon

West African people associated with the Kingdom of Dahomey and Vodun religious traditions.

Slavery in Africa

Forms of slavery existed in Africa before and during the Atlantic slave trade.

Traditional African Slavery

Forms of slavery that varied by society and period and could differ from Atlantic chattel slavery.

Atlantic Chattel Slavery

A system in which enslaved people were treated as inheritable property.

Who Became Enslaved?

People could include prisoners of war, criminals, kidnapped people, and people sold into slavery.

Atlantic Slave Trade

Forced transportation of millions of Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas.

African Slave Trade Regions

Many enslaved people transported across the Atlantic came from West and West-Central Africa.

Effects of Slavery on Africa

Slavery affected populations, warfare, economies, and political relationships in African societies.

Atlantic World

Network connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas through trade, migration, conquest, and slavery.

Hundred Years' War

Long conflict primarily between England and France that helped strengthen national identities.

War of the Roses

English civil conflict between the Houses of Lancaster and York.

Lancaster

English royal house represented by the red rose during the Wars of the Roses.

York

English royal house represented by the white rose during the Wars of the Roses.

Reconquista

Long process in which Christian kingdoms conquered Muslim-ruled territories in Iberia.

Reconquista 1492

Granada, the last major Muslim kingdom in Iberia, fell to Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Spanish monarchs whose marriage helped unite Spain and who sponsored Columbus.

Crusades

Series of European Christian military campaigns connected to the struggle for control of the Holy Land.

Effect of the Crusades

Expanded European interest in Eastern trade and contributed to the growth of Italian trading cities.

Italian City-States

Wealthy Mediterranean trading centers that traded with the East.

Protestant Reformation

Religious movement that challenged the authority and practices of the Catholic Church.

Martin Luther

German religious reformer whose criticism of indulgences helped launch the Protestant Reformation.

Indulgences

Church practices involving the granting of spiritual benefits that Luther strongly criticized.

Printing Press

Technology that helped Protestant ideas spread rapidly across Europe.

John Calvin

Protestant reformer strongly associated with the doctrine of predestination.

Predestination

Belief that God has already determined who will receive salvation.

Wars of Religion

European conflicts involving religious divisions between Protestants and Catholics.

Protestant Europe

Included England, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and parts of the Holy Roman Empire.

Catholic Europe

Included Spain, France, Italy, and parts of the Holy Roman Empire.

English Reformation

Religious transformation in England that separated the Church of England from the Catholic Church.

Henry VIII

English king who broke with the Catholic Church after seeking an annulment from Catherine of Aragon.

Catherine of Aragon

Henry VIII's first wife; Henry wanted an annulment partly because he wanted a male heir.

Church of England

English church established after Henry VIII broke with the authority of the Pope.

Mercantilism

Economic system in which nations used colonies, trade restrictions, and favorable trade balances to increase wealth and power.

Favorable Balance of Trade

Goal of exporting more than importing in order to accumulate wealth.

Mercantilist Colonies

Colonies supplied raw materials and staple crops and served as markets for the mother country.

Mother Country

European country that controlled a colony and benefited from its resources and trade.

Protectionism

Government policies designed to protect domestic industries, often through tariffs.

Tariffs

Taxes placed on imported goods.

Navigation Acts

English laws designed to regulate colonial trade and favor English merchants and shipping.

Holy Roman Empire

Important European political entity that was not a major overseas colonial power.

Netherlands

European trading power that fought a long war for independence from Spain.

Sweden

Protestant European power that participated in religious wars and established some colonies.

Denmark

Scandinavian kingdom that later established its own colonies.