Chapter 6: Blood and the Lymphatic & Immune Systems

Clinical Laboratory Science / Medical Laboratory Science

Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians perform clinical tests using laboratory equipment, microscopes, and computers. These tests include chemical analyses on body tissues, blood, and other body fluids, growing bacterial cultures, and cross-matching blood for transfusion

Clinical Laboratory Scientist (CLS) / Medical Technologist (MT)

Performs complex medical laboratory tests in addition to administrative and supervisory duties

Phlebotomist

Draws venous blood; Does not perform tests

Transports gases, nutrients, and wastes to all areas of the body either attached to red blood cells or dissolved in the plasma

What is the function of blood?

Fight infection and disease, and platelets initiate the blood-clotting process

What is the function of white blood cells?

Formed Elements

What are the primary components that comprise blood?

Five

The average adult has about ____ liters of blood that circulates throughout the body within the blood vessels of the cardiovascular system.

Plasma

Liquid portion of blood containing 90% water; Remaining 10% consists of plasma proteins (serum albumin, serum globulin, fibrinogen, and prothrombin), inorganic substances (calcium, potassium, and sodium), organic components (glucose, amino acids, cholesterol), and waste products (urea, uric acid, ammonia, and creatinine)

Mixture

Blood is a ____ of floating cells floating in watery plasma.

Formed Elements

Solid, cellular portion of blood; Consists of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets

Erythrocytes

Cells that contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing pigment that binds oxygen in order to transport it to cells of body; Also called red blood cells (RBCs)

Leukocytes

Also called white blood cells (WBCs); Group of several different types of cells that provide protection against invasion of bacteria and other foreign material; Able to leave bloodstream and search out foreign invaders (bacteria, viruses, and toxins), where they perform phagocytosis

Platelets

Cells responsible for coagulation of blood; Contains no hemoglobin; Smallest of all the formed elements; Formed when the cytoplasm of a large precursor cell shatters into small platelike fragments; Also called thrombocytes

Hematopoiesis

Process of forming blood cells; Site in red bone marrow

Body

There are between 200,000 and 300,000 platelets per cubic millimeter in the ______.

Transporting

Plasma and erythrocytes are responsible for _____ substances.

Plasma Proteins

Found in the plasma; Includes serum albumin, serum globulin, fibrinogen, and prothrombin

55%

Liquid plasma composes about ____ of whole blood in the average adult and is 90–92% water. The remaining 8–10% portion of plasma consists of dissolved substances, especially plasma proteins.

Albumin

Helps transport fatty substances that cannot dissolve in the watery plasma.

Gamma

There are three main types of globulins; the most commonly known one, ____ globulin, acts as an antibody.

Fibrinogen

Blood-clotting plasma protein

Dissolved

In addition to the plasma proteins, smaller amounts of other important substances are also ______ in the plasma for transport: calcium, potassium, sodium, glucose, amino acids, fats, and waste products such as urea and creatinine

Biconcave

Erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs), are _____ disks that are enucleated.

Enucleated

Loss of a cell’s nucleus

Hemoglobin

(Hgb, Hb), (1) iron-containing pigment of red blood cells that carries oxygen from lungs and delivers it to tissue; (2) blood test to measure amount of hemoglobin present in blood

Million

There are about 5 _____ erythrocytes per cubic millimeter of blood. The total number in an average-sized adult is 35 trillion, with males having more red blood cells than females.

120

Erythrocytes have an average lifespan of _____ days, and then the spleen removes the worn-out and damaged ones from circulation.

Reused

Much of the red blood cell, such as the iron, can be ______, but one portion, bilirubin.

Bilirubin

Waste product produced from destruction of worn-out red blood cells; Disposed of by liver

Spherical

In general, white blood cells have a ______ shape with a large nucleus, and there are about 8,000 per cubic millimeter of blood.

Cytoplasm

There are five different types of white blood cells, each with its own strategy for protecting the body. The five can be subdivided into two categories: granulocytes (with granules in the ______) and agranulocytes (without granules in the ______).

Granuloctyes

Granular polymorphonuclear leukocytes; Three types: neutrophil, eosinophil, and basophil

Agranulocytes

Nongranular white blood cells; One of two types found in plasma that are classified as either monocytes or lymphocytes.

Basophils

Granulocyte that releases histamine and heparin to damaged tissues.

Eosinophils

Granulocyte that destroys parasites and increases during allergic reactions

Neutrophils

Granulocyte that engulfs foreign and damaged cells (phagocytosis); Most numerous of the leukocytes.

Monoctyes

Agranulocyte that engulfs foreign and damaged cells (phagocytosis)

Lymphocytes

Agranulocyte that plays several different roles in immune response

Strategy

There are five different types of white blood cells, each with its own _______ for protecting the body.

Thrombocyte

Play critical part in blood-clotting process by agglutinating into small clusters and releasing thrombokinase; Also called platelets.

Hemostasis

Term for blood-clotting process; Also stopping of blood flow using instruments, pressure, and/or medication; Platelets play a critical role in this process

Agglutinate

Clumping together to form small clusters

Clotting

Platelets agglutinate to start the _____ process (Hemostasis). They agglutinate or clump together into small clusters when a blood vessel is cut or damaged.

Thromboplastin

Substance released by platelets; In the presence of calcium, reacts with prothrombin to form thrombin.

Prothrombin

Protein element within blood that interacts with calcium salts to form thrombin

Thrombin

Clotting enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin.

Fibrin

Whitish protein formed by action of thrombin and fibrinogen, which is basis for clotting of blood, which eventually becomes a mesh-like blood clot.

Markers

Each person’s blood is different due to the presence of antigens or ________ on the surface of erythrocytes.

Transfusion

Before a person receives a blood _______, it is important to do blood typing. This laboratory test determines if the donated blood is compatible with the recipient’s blood.

Subgroups

There are many different _____ of blood markers, but the two most important ones are the ABO system and Rh factor.

ABO System

Major system of blood typing

A / B

In the ABO blood system, there are two possible red blood cell markers, ____ and ____. A marker is one method by which cells identify themselves.

Type A Blood

One of ABO blood types; person with type A markers on RBCs; type A blood will make anti-B antibodies that will attack type B blood.

Type B Blood

One of ABO blood types; Person with type B markers on RBCs; Type B blood will make anti-A antibodies that will attack type A blood.

Type AB Blood

One of ABO blood types; Person with both type A and type B markers on RBCs; Since it has both markers, it will not make antibodies against either A or B blood; Will not attack any other blood type; Universal recipient

Type O Blood

One of ABO blood types; Person with no markers on RBCs; The absence of either an A or B marker; Contains both anti-A or anti-B antibodies and will attack all other blood types (A, B, and AB); Therefore, is considered a universal donor

Attacked

Because type O blood does not have either the A or B marker, its red blood cells will not be _______ by the antibodies in type A, B, or AB blood

Universal Donor

Type O blood is considered ________ because its red blood cells will not be attacked by the antibodies in type A, type B, or type AB blood.

Universal Recipient

Person with type AB blood has no antibodies against other blood types and therefore, in emergency, can receive any type of blood

Rh-positive (Rh+)

A person with the Rh factor on their red blood cells. Since this person has the factor, they will not make anti-Rh antibodies.

Rh-negative (Rh−)

A person without the Rh factor and will produce anti-Rh antibodies

Rh+

_____ person may receive both an Rh+ and an Rh− transfusion

Rh−

_____ person can receive only Rh− transfusion.

Lymphatic System

Consists of a network of lymph vessels that pick up excess tissue fluid, cleanse it, and return it to the circulatory system. It also picks up fats that have been absorbed by the digestive system. The immune system fights disease and infections.

• Lymph Nodes

• Lymphatic Vessels

• Spleen

• Thymus Gland

• Tonsils

The primary structures that comprise the lymphatic and immune systems:

Lymphatic Vessels

Extensive network of vessels throughout entire body; Conduct lymph from tissue toward thoracic cavity and return it into the circulatory system.

Lymph Nodes

Small organs in lymphatic system that filter bacteria and other foreign organisms from body fluids; Commonly referred to as lymph glands

Spleen

Organ in lymphatic system that filters microorganisms and old red blood cells from blood

Thymus Gland

Endocrine gland located in upper mediastinum that assists body with immune function and development of antibodies; As part of immune response it secretes the hormone thymosin that changes lymphocytes to T cells; Active in the unborn child and throughout childhood until adolescence, when it begins to shrink in size

Tonsils

Collections of lymphatic tissue located in pharynx to combat microorganisms entering body through nose or mouth; Include pharyngeal tonsils, palatine tonsils, and lingual tonsils

Lymph

Clear, transparent, colorless fluid found in lymphatic vessels.

Lacteals

Lymphatic vessels in intestines that serve to absorb fats from diet; Pickup absorbed fats for transport.

Immune System

The lymphatic system works with the _________ to form the groups of cells, tissues, organs, and molecules that serve as the body’s primary defense against the invasion of pathogens. These systems work together, defending the body against foreign invaders and substances, as well as removing the body’s own cells that have become diseased.

Closed Loop

Lymphatic vessels are not in a _____. They serve as one-way pipes conducting lymph from the tissues toward the thoracic cavity.

Lymphatic Capillaries

Smallest lymph vessels; Collect excessive tissue fluid to send it back to the circulatory system; Merges into larger lymphatic vessels

Valves

Flaplike structures found within tubular organs such as lymph vessels, veins, and heart; Function to prevent backflow of fluid; Low pressure system

Lymphatic Ducts

Two largest vessels in lymphatic system, right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct

Right Lymphatic Duct

One of two large lymphatic ducts that drains right arm and right side of head, neck, and chest; Empties lymph into right subclavian vein

Thoracic Duct

Largest lymph vessel; Drains entire body except for right arm, chest wall, and both lungs; Empties lymph into left subclavian vein

Purify

Lymphatic vessels pick up excess tissue fluid, _____ it in lymph nodes, and return it to the circulatory system.

Lymph Nodes

Small organs in lymphatic system that filter bacteria and other foreign organisms from body fluids; Composed of lymphatic tissue located along the route of the lymphatic vessels; Commonly referred to as lymph glands

Destroy

Lymph nodes also serve to trap and ______ cells from cancerous tumors

Concentrated

Although found throughout the body, lymph nodes are particularly ________ in several regions. For example, lymph nodes concentrated in the neck region drain lymph from the head.

Axillary

Site for lymph nodes; Drain arms and shoulder region; cancer cells from breast may be present

Cervical

Site for lymph nodes; Drain head and neck; May be enlarged during upper respiratory infections

Inguinal

Site for lymph nodes; Drain legs and lower pelvis

Mediastinal

Site for lymph nodes; Drains chest cavity

Pharynx

Medical term for throat; passageway that conducts air from nasal cavity to trachea and also carries food and drink from mouth to esophagus; divided into three sections: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx

Palatine Tonsils

Tonsils located in lateral wall of pharynx close to mouth

Pharyngeal Tonsils

Tonsils that are collection of lymphatic tissue found in nasopharynx to combat microorganisms entering body through nose or mouth; Commonly referred to as adenoids

Lingual Tonsils

Tonsils located on very posterior section of tongue as it joins with pharynx.

Large

All tonsils contain a ______ number of leukocytes and act as filters to protect the body from the invasion of pathogens through the digestive or respiratory systems.

Not

Tonsils are ____ vital organs and can safely be removed if they become a continuous site of infection.

Spleen

Located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen, consists of lymphatic tissue that is highly infiltrated with blood vessels; Filters out and destroys old red blood cells, recycles the iron, and also stores some of the blood supply for the body

Blood Sinuses

Spread-out blood vessels within spleen resulting in slow-moving blood flow

Macrophages

Phagocytic cells found in large quantities in lymph nodes; Engulf foreign particles; Because the blood is moving through the organ slowly, the ______ have time to carefully identify pathogens and worn-out red blood cells.

Increased

The spleen is not a vital organ and can be removed due to injury or disease. However, without the spleen, a person’s susceptibility to a bloodstream infection may be _______.

Thymosin

Hormone secreted by thymus gland; Causes lymphocytes to change into T lymphocytes

T Lymphocytes

Type of lymphocyte involved with producing cells that physically attack and destroy pathogens; Lymphocytes active in cellular immunity; Commonly called T cells

Immunity

Body’s ability to defend itself against pathogens