Research Methods Midterm Exam

What are the three types of broad scientific approaches to research that are available to psychologists?

Descriptive research, Correlational research, and Experimental research.

Quantitative Study

Answers "What" and "How much" using structured, numerical data to produce generalizable facts.

Qualitative Study

Answers "Why" and "How" using non-numerical data to understand human behavior and perspectives.

Mixed-Methods Study

Combines both quantitative (numerical/statistical) and qualitative (words/experiences) research in a single study.

Focus Group

A qualitative research method in which a small group of people discusses a specific topic under the guidance of a moderator. Psychologists use it to gather information about participants’ thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and experiences.

Case Study

A research method that involves an in-depth investigation of one person, a small group, or a specific event to understand behavior, thoughts, or experiences.

Why are some case studies useful even if they’re based on a sample of only 1 or 2 people?

They provide in-depth information about individuals, helping psychologists understand rare behaviors, unusual conditions, or unique experiences.

Concept

An abstract idea or characteristic that psychologists study, such as intelligence, stress, or motivation.

Variable

A factor that can change or take different values and can be measured in research, such as a person's stress level or intelligence test score.

Constant

A factor that stays the same throughout a research study for all participants.

Levels of a Variable

The different values or conditions that a variable can take in a research study. If the variable is sleep duration, its levels might be 5 hours, 7 hours, and 9 hours of sleep.

Dichotomous Variable

A variable that has only two possible values or categories. A yes/no response, pass/fail result, or present/absent condition.

Manipulate a Variable

To deliberately change or control it in a study to see how it affects another variable. A psychologist assigns participants to get 7 hours or 9 hours of sleep to see how sleep duration affects test scores.

Operational Definition

Explains exactly how a variable is measured or manipulated in a research study. Defining stress as a participant’s score on a stress questionnaire.

Independent Variable

The variable a researcher manipulates to see how it affects another variable. Hours of sleep assigned to participants.

Dependent Variable

The outcome variable that is measured to see whether it changes in response to the independent variable. Test scores.

Predictor Variable

A variable used to predict or explain an outcome, usually in correlational research where variables are not manipulated. Hours of sleep used to predict test scores in a correlational study.

Random assignment to conditions

Using chance to place participants into different groups or levels of the independent variable in an experiment. A psychologist randomly assigns participants to either a 7-hour sleep group or an 9-hour sleep group.

Correlational Study

A research method that examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. It can identify associations but cannot establish cause and effect. Measure how much people naturally sleep and compare it with their test scores.

Experimental Study

A research method in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable to investigate cause and effect. Randomly assign people to different sleep conditions and compare their test scores a day later.

On a graph/scatterplot, what does a positive correlation look like?

A cluster of data points that trend upward from the bottom-left to the top-right.

As the values on the horizontal axis (X) increase, the corresponding values on the vertical axis (Y) also increase.

How do you interpret the meaning of a positive correlation?

As one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase as well. However, correlation does not necessarily mean that one variable causes the other.

What does a negative correlation look like on a scatterplot?

A cluster of data points that trend downward from the top-left to bottom-right.

As the values on the horizontal axis (X) increase, the corresponding values on the vertical axis (Y) decrease.

How do you interpret the meaning of a negative correlation?

As one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease. However, correlation does not necessarily mean that one variable causes the other.

What is an inverse correlation?

A negative relationship between two variables, meaning that as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

What is a curvilinear correlation?

A relationship between two variables that follows a curved pattern rather than a straight line. The direction of the relationship may change as the values of the variables increase or decrease.

Which words/vocabulary are appropriate to use in a research question when planning an experimental study that you should NOT use when planning a correlational study?

“Cause,” “Effect,” “Impact,” and “Influence”

Identify whether the study reports correlational, experimental, or qualitative data.

“The Relationship Between Stress Levels and Sleep Quality Among College Students.”

Correlational

Identify whether the study reports correlational, experimental, or qualitative data.

“The Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Memory Performance in College Students.”

Experimental

Identify whether the study reports correlational, experimental, or qualitative data.

“College Students’ Experiences of Anxiety During Final Exams: An Interview Study.”

Qualitative

Confounds

Outside variables that could influence the results of a study, making it difficult to determine whether the independent variable caused the observed effect.

What two strategies can researchers use to combat potential confounds?

Random Assignment: Randomly assigning participants to groups to reduce systematic differences between them.

Control Variables: Keeping other relevant factors constant across groups to reduce their influence on the results.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a research study.

Hypothesis Statement Example

If college students get at least eight hours of sleep, then they will perform better on memory tests than students who get less sleep.

Null hypothesis (H₀)

A statement that there is no statistically significant relationship or difference between the variables being studied.

Alternative hypothesis (H₁)

A statement that there is a statistically significant relationship or difference between the variables being studied.

Null Hypothesis (H₀) Example

There is no significant difference in memory test scores between college students who get at least eight hours of sleep and those who get less than eight hours.

Alternative Hypothesis (H₁) Example

College students who get at least eight hours of sleep will have significantly higher memory test scores than those who get less than eight hours.

A researcher wants to study whether hours of sleep predict college students’ exam scores.

What’s the predictor variable (X)?

Hours of sleep

A researcher wants to study whether hours of sleep predict college students’ exam scores.

What’s the outcome variable (Y)?

Exam scores

A researcher wants to study whether hours of sleep predict college students’ exam scores.

Present the hypothetical model.

Hours of sleep (X) → Exam scores (Y)

Validity

How accurately a study or measurement measures what it is intended to measure.

Reliability

The consistency of a measurement, meaning it produces similar results under consistent conditions.

Different sources of threat to internal validity.

History: An outside event affects participants during the study.

Maturation: Participants naturally change over time, such as becoming more tired or developing new skills.

Testing effects: Taking a test once influences performance on a later test.

Instrumentation: The measurement tool or procedure changes during the study.

Regression to the mean: Extremely high or low scores tend to become closer to the average when measured again.

Selection bias: Groups differ in important ways before the study begins.

Attrition (experimental mortality): Participants drop out, potentially leaving groups that differ from one another.

Confounding variables: An uncontrolled variable provides another possible explanation for the results.

Peer Review

A process in which experts in the same field evaluate a research study before it is published to assess its quality, accuracy, validity, and scientific credibility.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research involving human participants to ensure their rights, safety, and well-being are protected and that ethical guidelines are followed.

Abstract

A brief summary of the purpose, methods, main findings, and conclusions.

Introduction

Background research, theories, research question, and hypothesis. Explains why the study was conducted.

Methods

How the study was conducted, including participants, sample size, materials, measures, and procedures.

Results

The data and statistical findings, including whether results were significant.

Discussion

Interpretation of the findings, whether the hypothesis was supported, limitations, and implications.

References

Sources cited in the article.

Recruited Sample

The number of participants initially recruited or enrolled in the study.

Analytical Sample

The number of participants whose data were actually included in the analysis.

Researchers recruit 200 participants for a study. However, 15 drop out and another 5 are excluded because their data are incomplete.

What would the recruited sample be?

200 participants

Researchers recruit 200 participants for a study. However, 15 drop out and another 5 are excluded because their data are incomplete.

What would the analytical sample be?

180 participants

Why are established scales generally more reliable than creating one’s own scales to measure a well-known psychological phenomenon or construct?

They have been tested and validated through previous research.

What is a researcher's positionality?

How their personal background, experiences, identity, beliefs, and values may influence how they conduct research, interpret data, and understand participants.

Content Analysis

A method used to identify patterns and categories in qualitative data.

What is a code in content analysis?

A label assigned to a meaningful idea in the data.

A student says, 'I am worried about paying tuition and rent.' Which code best fits this response?

Financial concerns.

A researcher groups codes such as 'exams,' 'assignments,' and 'deadlines' together. What is this an example of?

Creating a category.

What is the correct general order for conducting content analysis?

Read the data, create codes, group codes into categories, identify patterns.

History

An outside event affects participants during the study.

Maturation

Participants naturally change over time, such as becoming more tired or developing new skills.

Testing Effects

Taking a test once influences performance on a later test.

Instrumentation

The measurement tool or procedure changes during the study.

Regression to the mean

Extremely high or low scores tend to become closer to the average when measured again.

Selection Bias

Groups differ in important ways before the study begins.

Attrition

Participants drop out, potentially leaving groups that differ from one another.

Confounding Variables

An uncontrolled variable that provides another possible explanation for the results.

Descriptive Research

A research method used to observe and describe behaviors, characteristics, or phenomena as they naturally occur, without manipulating variables or determining cause and effect.