Learning and Thinking exam 2

ABC Contingency

Antecedent (what happens before), Behavior (what you do), Consequence (what happens after). The consequence determines whether the behavior becomes more or less likely. Example: Study (behavior) leads to a good grade (consequence).

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

A cue signaling that a behavior will be followed by reinforcement or punishment. Example: A lit "open" sign signals that going in will get you service.

S Delta (SΔ)

A cue signaling that a behavior will NOT be reinforced. Responding in its presence leads to extinction. Example: A "closed" sign.

Extinction

Reinforcement for a behavior stops, so the behavior decreases over time. Example: A vending machine takes your money and gives nothing, so you stop using it.

Reinforcement

A consequence that makes a behavior MORE likely in the future. Example: Praise after you raise your hand makes you raise it more.

Punishment

A consequence that makes a behavior LESS likely in the future. Example: A speeding ticket makes you speed less.

Positive (in operant conditioning)

Something is ADDED after the behavior. It does not mean "good."

Negative (in operant conditioning)

Something is REMOVED or avoided after the behavior. It does not mean "bad."

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something pleasant, so behavior increases. Example: A sticker for answering in class.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing or avoiding something unpleasant, so behavior increases. Example: Waking up early to avoid your students glaring at you for being late.

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant, so behavior decreases. Example: Watching boring, annoying TV shows makes you stop turning on the TV.

Negative Punishment

Removing something pleasant, so behavior decreases. Example: Arriving after 7pm and missing the happy hour specials.

Two Question Trick for R and P

Question 1: Did the behavior increase (reinforcement) or decrease (punishment)? Question 2: Was something added (positive) or removed or avoided (negative)? Combine the two answers.

Rule of Life

If a behavior keeps occurring, it is being reinforced. Example: A dog keeps barking even though you yell, so the attention is reinforcing the barking.

Immediate Reinforcement or Punishment

The consequence happens right after the behavior. Example: A treat right after a dog sits, or burning your hand on a stove.

Delayed Reinforcement or Punishment

The consequence happens after some delay. Example: A paycheck at the end of the month, or saving money for a new car.

Primary Reinforcer or Punisher

Unlearned and naturally reinforcing or punishing, usually tied to biological needs. Example: Food, water, pain.

Secondary Reinforcer or Punisher

Learned. It gains power by being associated with primary reinforcers or punishers. Example: Money, praise, tokens, "the look" from mom.

Generalized Reinforcer or Punisher

A conditioned reinforcer or punisher that works across many situations and behaviors. Example: Money can buy food, housing, and shelter.

Natural Reinforcer or Punisher

Occurs naturally with the behavior, with no human setup needed. Example: Feeling less hungry after eating, or feeling tired after a bike ride.

Contrived Reinforcer or Punisher

Created or imposed by humans. Example: Money, tokens, fines, grades, or rewarding yourself with ice cream after 20 miles.

Extrinsic Reinforcer or Punisher

A consequence that is something other than the behavior and usually follows it. Example: Getting paid to sing.

Intrinsic Reinforcer or Punisher

Doing the behavior is its own reward or punishment. Example: Singing just because you enjoy it.

Continuous Reinforcement (CRF)

Every occurrence of the behavior is reinforced. It is the same as FR 1. Example: Every time you put a coin in a machine, you get a snack.

Intermittent Reinforcement

Only some occurrences of the behavior are reinforced. Includes FR, VR, FI, and VI schedules. Example: A slot machine pays out only sometimes.

Schedule of Reinforcement

The rule for when a behavior will be reinforced.

Ratio vs Interval Question

Ask: will doing the behavior faster get me the reward sooner? Yes means Ratio (based on number of responses). No means Interval (based on time passing).

Fixed vs Variable Question

Ask: is the number of responses or the amount of time predictable? Yes means Fixed. No means Variable.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Reinforcement after a set, predictable number of responses. Produces a high response rate with a pause after each reward. Example: Paid $5 for every 10 surveys coded.

Variable Ratio (VR)

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses that averages out to a set number. Produces a steady, high response rate that is hard to extinguish. Example: Slot machines.

Fixed Interval (FI)

Reinforcement for the first response after a set, predictable amount of time has passed. Produces a scalloped pattern where responding speeds up as the time nears. Example: A pop quiz every 2 weeks, so students study more as it gets close.

Variable Interval (VI)

Reinforcement for the first response after an unpredictable amount of time that averages out to a set number. Produces a steady, moderate response rate. Example: Checking your phone for new Snaps.

Cumulative Recorder Graph

A graph showing total responses over time. A steeper line means a faster response rate, and tick marks show reinforcers. FR shows stairsteps, VR is steep and smooth, FI is scalloped, and VI is steady and smooth.

Post Reinforcement Pause

A pause in responding right after a reward on ratio schedules. Example: You stop tapping to eat your candy.

Ratio Run

A burst of rapid responding after the pause to reach the next reinforcer. Example: Tapping like crazy to get to the next Skittle.

Ratio Strain

Responding drops because the ratio requirement was raised too high or too fast. Example: Going from 30 taps to 50 taps per candy.

Breaking Point

The point where the response requirement is so demanding that the behavior stops completely. Example: Needing 1000 taps for one candy.

Fixed Duration (FD)

Reinforcement after the behavior is performed continuously for a set length of time. Different from FI because the behavior must continue the whole time. Example: Practice piano for one full hour to earn TV time.

Variable Duration (VD)

Reinforcement after the behavior is performed continuously for an unpredictable length of time that averages out to a set amount.

Differential Reinforcement of High Rates (DRH)

Reinforcement only when the behavior occurs at or above a set rate. Used to increase how often or how fast something happens. Example: Reward a student for completing at least 10 math problems in 10 minutes.

Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)

Reinforcement only when the behavior occurs slowly, with a minimum time between responses. Used to reduce but not eliminate a behavior. Example: Reward a student for waiting 5 minutes between asking questions.

Differential Reinforcement of Paced Responding (DRP)

Reinforcement only when responses fall within a moderate window, neither too fast nor too slow. Example: A worker is reinforced for finishing a task in 10 to 15 minutes, or steady pedaling on a long bike ride.

Noncontingent Schedule

Reinforcement is delivered based on time, regardless of what the person does. Can be fixed or variable. Example: A bus arrives every 30 minutes whether or not you do anything.

Fixed Time (FT)

A noncontingent schedule where the reinforcer arrives after a fixed amount of time, with no behavior required. Example: A bus that arrives every 30 minutes sharp.

Variable Time (VT)

A noncontingent schedule where the reinforcer arrives after unpredictable amounts of time, with no behavior required. Can cause superstitious behavior. Example: A hockey player's lucky routine before a good play.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations (baby steps) toward a target behavior while no longer reinforcing the earlier steps. Example: Reward a rat first for facing the lever, then for approaching it, then for touching it, then for pressing it.

Chaining

Linking a series of different behaviors together in order, where each step leads to the next and the final step earns the reinforcer. Example: The squirrels completing an obstacle course to get a walnut.

Chained Schedule

Connecting different schedules or behaviors together so they must be completed in sequence to get reinforcement.

Shaping vs Chaining

Shaping builds ONE new behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations. Chaining links SEPARATE behaviors in sequence. Example: Learning a tennis serve with toss, then racquet back, then hit is chaining, while getting more accurate at hitting the target spot is shaping.

Drive

An internal need such as hunger or thirst that creates tension or discomfort and motivates behavior.

Homeostasis

A balanced internal state that behavior aims to restore, like a thermostat keeping a set temperature.

Drive Reduction Theory

Reinforcers work because they reduce an internal drive, and that reduction strengthens the behavior. Example: Thirst leads to drinking water, which leads to being quenched, so you drink again when thirsty.

Incentive Motivation

Behavior is driven by external rewards or incentives and the anticipated outcome, not by reducing internal tension. Incentives can be positive (reward) or negative (threat). Example: Studying for a good grade, or working hard to avoid losing your job, or trying a sandwich because everyone says it is amazing.

Premack Principle

A high probability behavior (one you prefer or do often) can reinforce a low probability behavior. Example: You can hang out with friends after cleaning your room, or you can go to Popeyes after finishing homework because you prefer eating out.

Response Deprivation Theory

A behavior becomes reinforcing when access to it is restricted below its normal baseline level. High or low probability does not matter. Example: Normally you see friends 4 hours a day, but you can only go out for 1 hour after finishing homework.

Premack vs Response Deprivation

Both use a behavior as the reinforcer. Premack depends on which behavior is preferred (higher probability). Response Deprivation depends on whether access to the reinforcing behavior is limited below baseline.

Bliss Point

The ideal distribution of time or activities you would choose if you were completely free to do whatever you wanted. Example: 1 hour of studying and 3 hours of gaming a day.

Minimum Deviation Model

When a restriction is added, people adjust their behavior to stay as close as possible to their bliss point. Example: Forced to study 2 hours, you cut gaming to 2 hours so the total change from your ideal is as small as possible.

Differential Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only under certain conditions (a certain rate, timing, or type) and not otherwise. DRH, DRL, DRP, and DRA are all types.

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA)

Reinforcing a desirable replacement behavior instead of a problem behavior. Example: Praise a student for raising their hand instead of blurting out answers.

Continuous Schedule

Another name for continuous reinforcement. Every occurrence of the behavior is reinforced. Example: Every time you put a coin in a machine, you get a snack.

Noncontingent

Reinforcement is NOT dependent on a behavior. It arrives based on time alone. Example: A bus that arrives every 30 minutes no matter what you do.

Extinction Burst

A temporary increase in the frequency or intensity of a behavior right after reinforcement stops. Example: Kicking a broken vending machine harder before giving up, or Curtis trying harder to talk to his girlfriend during the silent treatment.

Extinction Variability

When reinforcement stops, behavior becomes more varied as the learner tries new things to get the reward back. It does not become less varied. Example: Curtis tries new things to say during the silent treatment.

Extinction Side Effects

Extinction can cause an extinction burst, increased variability, emotional reactions such as frustration and aggression, and spontaneous recovery later. Example: A rat that stops getting food may bite a hand that reaches in.

Extinction Induced Depression

Sadness or lowered activity that can follow the loss of reinforcement. It is about mood, not about how long the behavior lasts. Example: Feeling down after a relationship that gave you lots of reward ends.

Spontaneous Recovery

A previously extinguished behavior reappears after a rest period, even with no new reinforcement. Example: A child who stopped tantrums starts again a week later.

Partial Extinction

The behavior decreases but does not stop completely. Example: A child's tantrums drop to half their old rate after parents start ignoring them.

Resistance to Extinction

How long a behavior continues after reinforcement stops. Behavior reinforced on thinner, intermittent schedules lasts longer than behavior reinforced on CRF. Example: A slot player keeps pulling long after the machine stops paying, but a vending machine user quits after one failure.

Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE)

Behavior learned under intermittent reinforcement is more resistant to extinction than behavior learned under continuous reinforcement, and thinner schedules like FR 100 are more resistant than richer ones like FR 5. Example: Sally always said yes to Jon so he quit quickly, but she only sometimes said yes to Sam so he kept asking for months.

Previous Experience with Extinction

Having gone through extinction before makes behavior LESS persistent the next time extinction occurs, because the learner has already learned to tell when reinforcement has stopped. This is different from PREE, which is about the reinforcement schedule used before extinction. Example: A rat that has been through extinction before quits pressing the lever faster the second time reinforcement stops.

Stimulus Control

A behavior reliably occurs in the presence of a particular stimulus (the SD) and not in its absence, because that stimulus signals reinforcement is available. Example: Leaving the house when the clock says 7:40 am, or stopping at a red light.

Stimulus Generalization

Responding to stimuli that are similar to the original cue. Example: Leaving the house at 7:38 am because it looks almost like 7:40.

Discrimination

Responding differently to different stimuli, such as responding to the SD but not the S Delta. It is the opposite of generalization. Example: Going into a restaurant when the open sign is lit but not when it says closed.

Generalization Gradient

A graph showing how much an organism responds to stimuli of varying similarity to the trained stimulus. A flat gradient means more generalization and less discrimination. A steep gradient means less generalization and more discrimination. Example: A rat that presses only for a 1000 Hz tone and not for 990 or 1010 Hz has a steep gradient and strong discrimination.

Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)

Reinforcement is given when the target problem behavior does NOT occur for a set time. Example: A child earns a sticker for every 10 minutes without hitting.

S Plus and S Minus

S Plus is the stimulus signaling that a response will be reinforced (same as SD). S Minus is the stimulus signaling that it will not be (same as S Delta). Example: A 600 Hz tone means food and a 580 Hz tone means nothing.

Peak Shift

After discrimination training with a similar S Plus and S Minus, the highest level of responding moves away from the S Plus in the direction opposite the S Minus. Example: Trained with S Plus at 600 Hz and S Minus at 580 Hz, the rat responds most to about 610 Hz.

Peak Shift and S Minus Distance

Peak shift is larger when the S Minus is closer to the S Plus, because the discrimination is harder. When the S Minus is far from the S Plus, there is little or no peak shift. The peak moves away from the S Minus, past the S Plus. Example: With an S Plus of 800 Hz, an S Minus of 700 Hz produces more peak shift (peak near 900 Hz) than an S Minus of 400 Hz.

Excitatory Conditioning

Learning that a stimulus (the S Plus) signals reinforcement is available, so responding to it increases. Example: A pigeon pecks more to an 800 Hz tone that signals food.

Inhibitory Conditioning

Learning that a stimulus (the S Minus) signals reinforcement is NOT available, so responding to it decreases. Example: A pigeon learns not to peck during a 700 Hz tone that signals no food.

Behavioral Contrast

When reinforcement changes for one behavior or situation, responding on an unchanged alternative changes in the opposite direction. The label depends on what happens to the UNCHANGED option. Example: Chipotle starts offering free guacamole, so Joel goes there more and Noodles less.

Positive Behavioral Contrast

Reinforcement gets worse for one option, so behavior on the unchanged option INCREASES. Example: Facebook gets full of annoying cat memes, so Kim spends more time on Twitter.

Negative Behavioral Contrast

Reinforcement gets better for one option, so behavior on the unchanged option DECREASES. Example: Chipotle starts giving free guacamole, so Joel goes to Noodles less.

Anticipatory Contrast

Responding to a current reinforcer changes because a better or worse reinforcer is expected soon. Example: Eating less of a plain snack because you expect a favorite dessert shortly.