Global Christianity

"Ghosts of a Faith"

"Jenkins’ theory that religions do not completely disappear; remnants remain within the culture that replaced them."

"Christianity’s influence on Islam"

"Islam developed surrounded by Christian nations and was influenced by Ethiopian-Christian practices and other Christian traditions."

"Islam as a Christian heresy"

"The idea that Islam can be understood partly as a response to Christianity rather than as a completely separate religion."

"Christopher Luxenberg’s theory"

"The Qur’an can be better understood in the context of Syriac Christian liturgy."

"Sufi Mysticism"

"Islamic mystical traditions that resemble Eastern Christian ascetic practices."

"Sufi Dhikr"

"Repetitive recitation of declarations of faith

"Sufi Asceticism"

"Spiritual self-denial and discipline resembling the practices of Christian monks and hermits."

"Saints and Shrines"

"Christian traditions of venerating saints and sacred places; compared with veneration of figures such as Fatima."

"Why study Ghosts of Christianity?"

"It demonstrates the interconnectedness of religions and shows that Abrahamic religions have influenced and responded to one another."

"Council of Ephesus (431)"

"Council that addressed the controversy over Christ’s nature and Mary’s title; it affirmed Theotokos and condemned Nestorius’ position."

"Nestorius"

"Patriarch of Constantinople who preferred Christotokos for Mary and emphasized the distinction between Christ’s human and divine natures."

"Christotokos"

"Christ-bearer or Mother of Christ; the term Nestorius preferred for Mary."

"Cyril of Alexandria"

"Patriarch who argued that Mary should be called Theotokos and emphasized that Christ was fully God and fully human."

"Theotokos"

"God-bearer or Mother of God; title for Mary affirmed by Cyril and the Council of Ephesus."

"Nestorius’ view of Christ"

"Christ had two distinct natures

"Cyril’s view of Christ"

"Christ is fully God and fully human; the Word became flesh

"Council of Chalcedon (451)"

"Council that established the doctrine that Christ has two distinct natures—existing together

"Eutyches"

"Monk who taught that after the Incarnation Christ had one divine nature

"Monophysitism"

"Belief in one nature of Christ; mono means one and physis means nature."

"Miaphysitism"

"Terminology describing Christ as having one unified nature."

"Pope Leo I"

"Pope who wrote the Tome of Leo

"Tome of Leo"

"Leo’s theological statement affirming that Christ exists in two distinct natures (fully God and fully man) united in one person (hypostasis) without confusion, change, division, or separation–a definition adopted by Chalcedon

"Bishop Dioscorus"

"Cyril’s successor in Alexandria who supported Eutyches at the 449 council and was later deposed at Chalcedon."

"Pulcheria"

"Byzantine empress who supported Cyril at Ephesus and later helped establish Chalcedonian theology." She played a crucial political and religious role in both councils: At Ephesus (431), she leveraged her influence at court in Constantinople to support Cyril's theology against Nestorius (whom she helped depose and exile). At Chalcedon (451), following Theodosius II's death, Pulcheria and her husband summoned the Council of Chalcedon to enforce theological unity across the empire and officially declare Leo's doctrine as orthodoxy. 

"Political influence on Christianity"

"Imperial politics and theological disagreements helped shape the geographic development of different Christian traditions."

"Church of the East"

A large, independent body of Syriac-speaking Christians centered in the Sasanid Persian Empire and Central Asia. They rejected the Council of Ephesus (431) and held their own patriarchate (Catholicos) at Seleucia-Ctesiphon and later Baghdad.

"Oriental Orthodox Churches"

The non-Chalcedonian communion formed in the 5th and 6th centuries following the Council of Chalcedon (451). Christians in Egypt and western Syria rejected Chalcedon's "two natures" formula, aligning instead with Cyril of Alexandria's theology (Copts in Egypt and West Syrians—Jacobites), holding to a Miaphysite (One Unified Nature) Christology

"Chalcedonian Christianity"

Christian tradition holding to the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon (451), which affirmed that Jesus Christ exists in two distinct natures (fully God and fully man) united in one person. It became the official standard of orthodoxy in both the Roman Western and Byzantine Eastern Empires (and later Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy)

"Five Important Sites of Early Christianity"

 Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem

"Syriac Language"

A dialect of Aramaic (the language spoken by Jesus), that became the major literary, theological, and liturgical language of Eastern Christianity outside the Greco-Roman Empire.

"Church of the East / Assyrian Church"

"Christian tradition centered in Mesopotamia and Persia that rejected Ephesus and developed independently outside the Roman Empire."

"Sasanian Dynasty"

"Persian dynasty that ruled from 224–651 CE; Zoroastrianism was its official religion."

"Christians under Sasanian rule"

"Christians were sometimes viewed as potential Roman spies because of Persia’s conflict with Rome."

"Synod of Markabta (424)"

"Synod associated with the Church of the East declaring its independence from Rome."

"Ephrem Syrus / Ephrem the Syrian"

prominent Syriac deacon, theologian, and hymnographer from Nisibis and Edessa renowned for writing theological poetry and hymns (madrashe) rather than abstract philosophical prose

"Madrashe"

"Syriac theological hymns or poetry associated especially with Ephrem."

"Nisibis"

"Major early center of Syriac learning and home of the School of Nisibis."

"Edessa"

"Intellectual and cultural heart of Syriac-speaking Christianity."

"Seleucia-Ctesiphon"

"Royal capital of the Sasanian Empire and seat of the Catholicos

"Catholicos"

"Head of the Church of the East."

"Gondishapur (Beth Lapat)"

Renowned center of medicine, science, and theological learning in Persia,

"Merv"

"Major Silk Road oasis city and metropolitan center for missionary expansion into Central Asia and China."

"Mountain imagery"

"Ephrem uses mountains to represent levels of spiritual holiness and closeness to God."

"Top of the mountain"

"Represents the highest point of Paradise

"Foothills and valleys"

"Home to repentant sinners and people who lived righteous lives but attained lower levels of spiritual holiness."

"Near the top of the mountain"

"Home to ascetics

"Hymn 7 — reaching the top"

"Requires rigorous asceticism

"Ephrem’s view of Heaven"

"Heaven is portrayed as an ascending hierarchy in which spiritual proximity to God reflects one’s dedication to faith on Earth."

"Rūḥā"

"Syriac word for Spirit; grammatically feminine."

"Feminine Holy Spirit imagery"

"The Holy Spirit is described using feminine and maternal imagery in Syriac tradition."

"Spirit as a mother"

"The Spirit is portrayed as hovering over creation

"Maternal imagery"

"Language that compares the Spirit’s actions to those of a mother caring for and nurturing her children."

"Gender in Syriac literature"

"Gender has symbolic importance because metaphors can make difficult or incomprehensible ideas easier to understand."

"Gender metaphor as a verbal icon"

"A metaphorical way of using familiar gendered imagery to communicate something about the incomprehensible or divine."

"Thomas’ missionary journey to India"

"Tradition claiming that the Apostle Thomas traveled to India and established Christian communities there."

"Historical evidence for Thomas tradition"

"Coins associated with King Gondophares support the existence of trade routes connected to the Thomas tradition."

"St. Thomas Christians"

"Indigenous Christians of Kerala

"King Gondophares"

"King whose coins provide historical evidence supporting the existence of trade networks connected to the Thomas tradition."

"King’s betrothed daughter"

"She chooses not to marry after hearing Thomas’ teaching about the spiritual disadvantages of earthly marriage."

"Thomas’ teaching on marriage"

"Earthly marriage brings worldly anxiety

"Heavenly Bridegroom"

"Jesus