Exam 2 Study Guide: Chapters 4–6 (Cognitive Abilities, Social Roles, and Social Relationships)

Comprehensive practice flashcards for Exam 2 covering Cognitive Abilities (Chapter 4), Social Roles (Chapter 5), and Social Relationships (Chapter 6).

According to the Seattle Longitudinal Study, how do cross-sectional and longitudinal findings differ regarding the decline of intelligence?

Cross-sectional results suggested intellectual decline began earlier, whereas longitudinal findings showed abilities rising or remaining stable through much of adulthood, followed by modest decline in later adulthood and more substantial decline in the 80s.

What is the Flynn effect?

The rise in average IQ scores across generations, associated with historical changes in modern life such as increased education and more intellectually demanding work.

How do fluid and crystallized intelligence differ in how they change across adulthood?

Crystallized intelligence (learned knowledge and skills like vocabulary and verbal comprehension) remains strong longer and can grow into later adulthood, whereas fluid intelligence (solving unfamiliar problems, processing speed, and working memory) peaks earlier and declines sooner.

What were the findings of cognitive training in the study of adults ages 64–94?

Training in spatial orientation or inductive reasoning helped many participants who had previously declined, with some benefits lasting years and additional training boosting scores again.

How does working memory differ from primary/short-term memory in age-related decline?

Primary/short-term memory briefly holds information, while working memory holds and mentally operates on information and shows greater age-related decline, especially on complex tasks.

Within long-term declarative memory, how do semantic and episodic memory change with age?

Semantic memory (general knowledge, language, and concepts) is relatively stable until later life despite name or word retrieval difficulties, whereas episodic memory (memory for events) declines more noticeably.

How does procedural/nondeclarative memory hold up against age-related decline compared to episodic memory?

Procedural memory, which supports motor skills and habits such as riding a bicycle, is generally more preserved with age than episodic memory.

What practical supports and strategies help slow or compensate for memory decline in older adults?

Memory-strategy training, electronic timers, phone reminders, written prompts, medication packaging labeled by time and date, focused attention, and useful cues.

What is the contextual perspective of cognitive decline?

An approach that evaluates cognition in everyday settings rather than solely through laboratory tests, emphasizing that older adults often show competence in familiar, practical tasks involving meaningful goals and emotional context.

How does stereotype threat impact older adults during memory testing?

When reminded of the negative stereotype that older adults are forgetful, performance anxiety can interfere with test performance, meaning a low score does not necessarily represent ability alone.

What is the positivity bias in cognitive aging?

A tendency where older adults attend more to positive than negative information and remember emotionally positive material differently from neutral material.

Which two age groups have the highest crash rates per mile according to cited textbook data?

Drivers under 20 and drivers over 70.

What is the social clock, and what are the effects of taking on an 'off-time' role?

The social clock is the culturally shaped timetable for expected life events; taking a role off-time (deviating from cultural timing) can make transitions more difficult or negatively affect life satisfaction.

What common gender stereotypes does the textbook identify for women and men?

Women are commonly stereotyped as communal, whereas men are commonly stereotyped as instrumental.

What are the four theories of gender role development described in the textbook?

Learning-schema theory (mental categories organize gender info), social role theory (observed differences in social roles), evolutionary psychology (survival/reproductive adaptations), and the biosocial perspective (interaction of hereditary biases and cultural influences).

What defines the stage of emerging adulthood?

The transition from dependent child toward independent adult, characterized by a fluid, non-sequential mixture of roles such as schooling, work, leaving and returning home, relationships, and financial independence.

How does the textbook distinguish the healthy-marriage effect from the marital-crisis effect?

The healthy-marriage effect links marriage directly to better health, but the marital-crisis effect shows that never-married adults are nearly as healthy as married adults, indicating that health deficits stem from the crisis of divorce, separation, or widowhood.

How does becoming a parent typically affect marital roles and relationship satisfaction?

It adds caregiving and household labor, causes gender roles to become more traditional (with mothers doing more childcare even if working full-time), and can decrease relationship satisfaction unless buffered by shared responsibilities, support, and good communication.

Who typically provides care for aging parents, and what negative outcomes can prolonged caregiving cause?

Spouses are first-line caregivers, followed by adult children (most commonly daughters and daughters-in-law). Prolonged caregiving demands can contribute to depression, relationship problems, physical illness, and reduced well-being.

What characteristics are more common among women who remain childless according to the cited demographic data?

Higher education and White racial background; these women were also more likely to work throughout adulthood and attain higher-level jobs and earnings.

What statistics does the textbook cite regarding divorce rates, remarriage intervals, and second divorces?

About one-third of marrying couples divorce within 10 years, most divorced people remarry after an average unmarried interval of 3.5 years, and more than half of those who remarry divorce a second time.

What are the four major theories of social relationships described in Chapter 6?

Attachment theory (caregiver bonds shape trust and closeness), the convoy model (dynamic support networks across time), socioemotional selectivity theory (prioritizing meaningful ties as perceived time becomes limited), and evolutionary psychology (social bonds linked to survival and reproduction).

How do filter theory and exchange theory explain mate selection?

Filter theory suggests potential partners are progressively narrowed based on availability, background, values, and compatibility; exchange theory explains mate selection through perceived rewards, costs, resources, and fairness.

How does the context of cohabitation influence future marital success?

Moving in together for convenience or without a clear commitment is linked to less successful marriages than cohabitation undertaken within a context of clear mutual commitment.

What are the six dimensions of intergenerational solidarity?

Structural (proximity/opportunity for contact), associational (actual visits or calls), affectual (emotional closeness), consensual (agreement in values), functional (exchanging help or money), and normative (sense of family obligation).

What is the 'grandmother effect' in grandparent-grandchild relationships?

The protective, supportive contributions made by grandparents—particularly maternal grandmothers—through childcare and the transmission of knowledge to promote family well-being.

What is the most common pattern of adult sibling closeness, and what are the psychological benefits of sibling support?

Moderate emotional closeness is the most common pattern; sibling support is associated with lower loneliness and depression and higher self-esteem and life satisfaction.