Memory/Cognition

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term/working memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten - conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called non-declarative memory or procedural.)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

spacing effect/distributed practice

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past.

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

mental set or schema

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

context effects

memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place

semantic encoding

the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

Herman Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve

measures the amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall or recognize across time - amount remembered depends on time spent learning

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

recency effect (serial position effect)

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well when asked immediately after

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well when there is a delay in asking to recall

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills and memories related to classical conditioning and procedural skills

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

sunk cost fallacy

a framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

autobiographical memory

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood