PA and Attitude

How is attitude defined?

A psychological tendency expressed by evaluating an entity with some degree of favour or disfavour (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993).

What are the three components of attitude?

Cognition (thoughts), affect (feelings), and behaviour (intentions or actions).

Can attitude be measured directly?

No. Attitude is a psychological construct inferred from cognitive, affective, and behavioural responses.

How can attitudes toward physical activity be positive or negative?

People evaluate physical activity favourably or unfavourably based on their beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tendencies.

What is the cognitive component of attitude?

Thoughts and beliefs about physical activity, including its benefits, risks, value, and likely outcomes.

What is the affective component of attitude?

Feelings and emotional reactions toward physical activity, such as enjoyment, dislike, or anticipated regret.

What is the behavioural component of attitude?

Behavioural intentions and tendencies, such as intending to exercise or approaching or avoiding physical activity.

How can cognitive attitudes be inferred verbally?

Through verbal expressions of beliefs, such as saying exercise improves health.

How can cognitive attitudes be inferred non-verbally?

Through non-verbal indicators of beliefs or thoughts rather than explicitly stated opinions.

How can affective attitudes be inferred verbally?

Through expressed likes, dislikes, enjoyment, or negative feelings about physical activity.

How can affective attitudes be inferred non-verbally?

Through indicators such as anticipated regret about missing an exercise session.

How can behavioural attitudes be inferred verbally?

Through stated intentions, such as saying I plan to walk to university tomorrow.

How can behavioural attitudes be inferred non-verbally?

Through approach or avoidance tendencies toward physical activity.

Why is attitude more complicated than simply positive or negative?

Attitudes reflect multiple interacting beliefs, feelings, intentions, experiences, and contextual influences.

Why might an authoritarian approach to changing PA attitudes fail?

Forcing behaviour may ignore individual values, motivations, barriers, and goals. Change should be personally meaningful.

Why are attitudes important in physical activity?

Attitudes help predict PA behaviour and can guide interventions designed to improve activity levels.

Does a positive attitude guarantee physical activity?

No. Attitude contributes to behaviour but does not guarantee action. Intentions may not translate into behaviour.

Why should PA interventions identify the factors underlying attitudes?

Targeting relevant beliefs, feelings, and social influences can shift attitudes and potentially improve PA participation.

Why can attitudes toward PA change from day to day?

Changing moods, emotions, circumstances, goals, barriers, and experiences can alter attitudes over time.

Which four theoretical approaches explain attitudes and PA behaviour?

Health Belief Model (HBM), Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), and Integrated Behaviour Change Model.

What does the Health Belief Model focus on?

Expectations about health outcomes, particularly perceived health risks and the benefits of a health behaviour (Becker et al., 1977).

What is perceived susceptibility in the HBM?

A person's belief about how vulnerable they are to a health problem, such as a heart attack.

How could perceived susceptibility encourage PA under the HBM?

Feeling at risk of a heart attack may motivate someone to become more active if they believe PA can reduce that risk.

What role do perceived benefits play in the HBM?

People consider whether a behaviour will make a meaningful difference and how valuable its expected benefits are.

How do demographic and psychological factors relate to the HBM?

They provide background influences, but beliefs about risk and benefits help shape health-related decisions.

What is the main focus of the Theory of Reasoned Action?

Background factors shape relevant beliefs and attitudes or social norms, which influence intention and subsequently behaviour.

How does the TRA sequence operate?

Background factors → attitudes and subjective norms → intention → behaviour.

How does the TRA differ from the TPB?

The TPB adds perceived behavioural control to account for how capable people feel of performing a behaviour.

What are the three broad background-factor categories in the TPB?

Individual factors, social factors, and information factors.

What are individual background factors in the TPB?

Personality, mood, emotions, values, stereotypes, and past behaviour.

What are social background factors in the TPB?

Education, age, gender, income, religion, race, ethnicity, and culture.

What are information background factors in the TPB?

Knowledge, media exposure, and interventions that may influence relevant beliefs.

What are the three central TPB determinants of intention?

Attitude toward the behaviour, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control.

What are behavioural beliefs in the TPB?

Beliefs about likely outcomes of a behaviour, including its benefits, value, enjoyment, and health effects.

How do behavioural beliefs influence PA?

They shape attitude toward PA by influencing whether someone evaluates the behaviour favourably or unfavourably.

What is attitude toward the behaviour in the TPB?

A person's overall favourable or unfavourable evaluation of performing a specific behaviour.

What are normative beliefs in the TPB?

Beliefs about whether important people or social groups approve of, expect, or perform a behaviour.

What is a subjective norm?

Perceived social pressure to perform or avoid a behaviour, influenced by normative beliefs and motivation to comply.

How can subjective norms influence PA?

If family, friends, or a community value activity, a person may feel more social support and stronger motivation to be active.

What are control beliefs in the TPB?

Beliefs about factors that facilitate or hinder a behaviour and the power those factors have over performance.

What is perceived behavioural control (PBC)?

A person's perception of how much control and capability they have to perform a behaviour despite barriers.

What questions assess PBC for PA?

Can I do it? Do I have the skills and resources? Can I overcome barriers such as time, weather, or access?

How can the three TPB determinants increase PA intentions?

Favourable attitudes, supportive subjective norms, and stronger perceived control can combine to strengthen intention.

How can the TPB be applied to active commuting?

Assess beliefs about benefits, perceived approval from family and friends, and perceived ability to walk or cycle to work or university.

What questions assess attitude in the active-commuting example?

What benefits would walking or cycling offer, and how valuable are those benefits to me?

What questions assess subjective norms in active commuting?

What would family or friends think about my cycling, and how motivated am I to comply with their wishes?

What questions assess PBC in active commuting?

Can I walk or cycle there? What internal or external factors help or hinder me, and how powerful are those barriers?

What did Hagger, Chatzisarantis, and Biddle (2002) examine?

The TPB and its relationships with physical activity, including past behaviour, intention, and subsequent behaviour.

What is the relationship between past behaviour, intention, and PA?

Past behaviour can influence attitudes and intentions, and intention is a direct predictor of subsequent PA behaviour.

What are the main correlates of being physically active in TPB research?

More positive attitudes, greater perceived control, and stronger intentions are associated with higher PA.

Are TPB findings about PA necessarily causal?

No. Correlational findings show associations but do not by themselves establish that one factor causes another.

What is the Integrated Behaviour Change Model?

An expanded approach that considers TPB factors alongside additional motivational, psychological, behavioural, and environmental influences.

What additional influences does the Integrated Behaviour Change Model consider?

Autonomous motivation, implicit attitudes, skills and abilities, habits, environmental constraints, action planning, and background factors.

What is autonomous motivation?

Motivation based on personal choice and endorsement rather than feeling forced by someone else.

Why may autonomous motivation support sustained PA?

When activity aligns with personal values and choices, people may be more willing to initiate and maintain it.

What are implicit attitudes in behaviour change?

Automatic evaluations of physical activity that may influence responses without deliberate conscious thought.

Why do skills and abilities matter for PA behaviour?

Positive attitudes and intentions may not lead to action if a person lacks the skills or physical capability required.

How can habit influence PA?

Repeated behaviour in familiar contexts can make activity more automatic and less dependent on conscious decisions.

How do environmental constraints influence PA?

Factors such as limited access, time, facilities, transport, or suitable conditions can prevent action despite strong intentions.

What is action planning in behaviour change?

Specifying when, where, and how a person will perform a planned behaviour.

What is the intention–behaviour gap?

The mismatch between intending to be physically active and actually carrying out the intended activity.

Why can the TPB predict intentions better than actual behaviour?

Intentions are not sufficient for action. Habits, preparation, skills, environmental barriers, and competing goals can intervene.

What is a successful intender in PA research?

Someone who has strong intentions to be active and follows through with relatively high physical activity.

What is an unsuccessful intender?

Someone with strong intentions to be active who nevertheless does not follow through consistently.

What is action control in relation to the intention–behaviour gap?

The processes that help people regulate action and translate intentions into actual goal-directed behaviour.

What is a moderator of the intention–behaviour gap?

A factor that changes how strongly intention translates into behaviour, making the gap larger or smaller.

How does goal difficulty affect the intention–behaviour gap?

Easier, more manageable goals generally make follow-through more likely and the gap smaller.

How does confidence or capability affect the intention–behaviour gap?

Greater confidence in one's ability to perform the activity can make it easier to act on intentions.

How does goal commitment affect the intention–behaviour gap?

Stronger commitment to achieving the goal generally helps reduce the gap between intention and behaviour.

How do conflicting goals affect the intention–behaviour gap?

Competing priorities, such as sleep, study, or work, can prevent planned activity and increase the gap.

How does the basis of intention affect PA follow-through?

Intentions grounded in self-identity tend to be more robust than intentions based mainly on reputation or external impressions.

Why can PA self-identity help bridge the gap?

If being active is valued as part of who someone is, they may be more likely to act consistently with that identity.

How does past behaviour relate to the intention–behaviour gap?

Previous activity can make future action easier through experience and habit. Limited past activity may make follow-through harder.

What relationship between past behaviour and the gap is highlighted in the notes?

The notes describe an inverse U-shaped relationship between intention and behaviour, with prior activity helping explain follow-through.

How can personality influence the intention–behaviour gap?

Conscientiousness and diligence can support planning, persistence, and follow-through, reducing the gap.

What is intention stability?

The extent to which a person's goal or intention remains consistent over time.

How does intention stability influence PA?

Stable intentions are more likely to translate into behaviour than temporary intentions that change with circumstances.

Why might an established PA routine beat a New Year's resolution?

A stable commitment integrated into everyday life can be supported by routines and habits, making action easier to maintain.

Which factors have consistently moderated the PA intention–behaviour gap?

Intention stability and past habits or behaviour.

What are implementation intentions?

A volitional self-regulatory strategy that specifies when, where, and how to act, increasing the chance an intention becomes behaviour.

What is the if–then structure of an implementation intention?

If situation Y occurs, then I will initiate goal-directed behaviour X.

What three elements should an implementation intention specify?

When the action will happen, where it will happen, and how it will be carried out.

How can implementation intentions reduce the intention–behaviour gap?

They turn a general intention into a specific response to a situation, reducing uncertainty and improving preparation.

How can implementation intentions help overcome barriers?

Planning an alternative response to predictable obstacles can improve perceived control and make follow-through more likely.

Give an implementation-intention example for rainy weather.

If it is raining in the morning, then I will run on the treadmill at the gym.

Why is action planning important even when motivation is strong?

Motivation alone may not overcome practical barriers. A specific plan makes the next action clearer and easier to initiate.

What is the key distinction between intention and behaviour?

Intention is a plan or readiness to act, while behaviour is the action actually performed.

What is the main takeaway from the HBM?

Perceived health risks and expected benefits help explain whether someone is motivated to adopt a health behaviour.

What is the main takeaway from the TRA?

Attitudes and perceived social norms influence intention, which predicts behaviour.

What is the main takeaway from the TPB?

Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control shape intention. Intention predicts PA but does not guarantee it.

What is the main takeaway from the Integrated Behaviour Change Model?

Behaviour depends on more than intention. Motivation, implicit attitudes, ability, habits, environmental constraints, and planning also matter.

How can PA interventions use the TPB?

Target outcome beliefs, strengthen supportive norms, and improve perceived control by addressing barriers and building capability.

How can PA interventions bridge the intention–behaviour gap?

Use specific action plans and if–then implementation intentions, set manageable goals, build routines, and address barriers.

How do attitude and intention differ?

Attitude is an evaluation of a behaviour, while intention is the decision or readiness to perform it.

How do subjective norm and PBC differ?

Subjective norm concerns perceived social pressure, while PBC concerns perceived ability and control over performing the behaviour.

What complete pathway summarises the TPB and PA?

Background factors shape behavioural, normative, and control beliefs. These influence attitude, subjective norm, and PBC, which shape intention and behaviour.

Why should PA goals be personally meaningful?

Aligning goals with individual values and priorities can support autonomous motivation and more sustainable behaviour change.

What is the overall conclusion about attitudes and PA?

Attitudes help predict activity, but behaviour also depends on intentions, control, habits, planning, ability, and context