Government: Chapter 6-10 Key Concepts (Notes in Class)

Unequal Participation

• Participation varies by education, income, race, gender, political culture, and institutional barriers

• These differences shape whose voices are heard in democracy.

  
  

Political Culture (Key Concept)

• States differ in political culture (individualistic, moralistic, traditionalistic), influencing how citizens view government and how much they participate.

  
  

Rational Choice Theory (Key Concept)

• People vote when the benefits outweigh the costs

• Explains why turnout changes across elections.

  
  

Institutional Constraints (Key Concept)

• Voter suppression methods (poll taxes, voter ID laws, fewer polling places, reduced hours) reduce participation among marginalized groups.

  
  

Election Type Impact

• Turnout is highest in presidential elections, lower in midterms, and lowest in local elections

• Election type strongly affects participation.

  
  

Party Core Constituencies

• Republicans tend to have older, wealthier, less diverse, suburban/rural voters

• Democrats tend to have younger, more diverse, urban voters.

  
  

Protest as Participation

• Protest is a crucial way for marginalized communities to gain visibility and representation.

  
  

Nonvoters (Key Concept)

• Large numbers of eligible voters do not participate

• This affects policy outcomes and representation.

  
  

Primary System Important

• Open, closed, semi‑closed, and top‑two primaries shape who gets nominated and how parties compete.

  
  

Plurality vs. Majority Voting

• Plurality elects whoever gets the most votes

• Majority requires over 50% and may need a runoff.

  
  

Third Party Barriers

• Winner‑take‑all systems, ballot access laws, and spoiler effect prevent third parties from winning.

Values vs. Attitudes (Key Concept)

• Values are broad beliefs

• Attitudes are specific issue opinions. Together they form public opinion.

  
  

Political Ideology Stability

• Ideology (liberal vs. conservative) is stable across life and predicts policy preferences.

  
  

Random Sampling Importance

• Randomization ensures representative samples

• Without it, polls become biased.

  
  

Margin of Error (Key Concept)

• Polls always have uncertainty

• Typical margin of error is 2–4%.

  
  

Polling Errors

• Oversampling, nonresponse bias, wording bias, and social desirability bias distort results.

  
  

Endogenous Influences

• Lifelong factors (family, upbringing) shape ideology and rarely change.

  
  

Exogenous Influences

• Major events (9/11, COVID‑19) can shift public opinion and ideology.

  
  

Interest Groups Power

• Interest groups amplify voices, shape public debate, and influence policy through organization and resources.

  
  

Membership Groups

• Groups individuals join voluntarily (NRA, Sierra Club, unions) to advocate for shared interests.

  
  

Institutional Interest Groups

• Corporations or agencies (Google, Amazon) lobby for their own interests.

  
  

Trade Associations (Key Concept)

• Industry groups pool resources to lobby more effectively (e.g., American Beverage Association).

  
  

Unions and Right to Work Laws

• Unions fight right‑to‑work laws

• RTW laws weaken unions and reduce Democratic vote share.

  
  

Lobbying Influence

• Lobbyists provide information to lawmakers

• nfluence varies by state professionalization.

  
  

Revolving Door Lobbyists

• Former lawmakers/staffers become lobbyists, increasing access and influence.

Split Executive System

• States divide executive power among multiple elected officials instead of one president-like figure.

  
  

Governor Power (Key Concept)

• Governors have strong powers: veto, line‑item veto, executive orders, appointments, calling special sessions.

  
  

Line-Item Veto Importance

• Allows governors to veto specific parts of a bill

• Exists in 44 states.

  
  

Governor vs. Legislature Power Gap

• Governors have large staff and resources

• Many legislatures are part‑time with limited support.

  
  

Veto Override Variation

• Some states require only a simple majority to override a governor’s veto.

  
  

Lieutenant Governor Role

• High visibility but few formal powers

• May preside over senate and break ties.

  
  

Attorney General Role

• Chief legal officer

• Oversees legal staff, represents state in court, collaborates with other AGs.

Bicameral vs. Unicameral

• Most states have two chambers; Nebraska is the only unicameral legislature.

  
  

Legislative Roles (Key Concept)

• Legislatures perform representation, policy making, and oversight of executive agencies.

  
  

Professional vs. Citizen Legislature

• PL = full‑time, high pay, large staff.

• CL = part‑time, low pay, small staff.

Committee System Importance

• Committees determine whether bills advance or die

• Central to legislative process.

  
  

Special Sessions

• Governors can call special sessions to address urgent issues.

  
  

Veto Override Power

• Legislatures can overturn governor vetoes

• Rules vary by state.

Coordination of State Attorney General

• State AGs coordinate through the National Association of Attorneys General to issue joint statements and influence national leaders.

  
  

AG as a Political Launchpad

• The Attorney General role is a powerful statewide office often used as a stepping stone to higher positions like governor or U.S. senator.

  
  

Statewide Elections Matter

• Winning a statewide office proves a candidate can build coalitions, run large campaigns, and attract donors.

  
  

Secretary of State’s Role in Elections

• Oversee election administration, set rules, and manage emergency changes — making them crucial during crises like COVID‑19.

  
  

Copartisan Advantage in Elections

• When a party controls election offices, small administrative decisions can slightly benefit that party in close elections.

  
  

Executive Power During Crises

• Executives can act quickly during emergencies (natural disasters, pandemics), giving them significant influence over policy and election rules.

  
  

Split Executive

• When different parties control different executive offices, crises can create political conflict instead of unity.

Texas Plural Executive System

• Texas divides executive power among multiple independently elected officials, limiting the governor’s unilateral authority.

  
  

Texas Legislature’s Low Professionalization

• Texas’s part‑time legislature gives more influence to executive officials like the lieutenant governor.

  
  

Lieutenant Governor’s Unique Power

• In Texas, the lieutenant governor has unusually strong legislative authority compared to other states.

  
  

Texas Secretary of State Weakness

• Unlike other states, Texas’s Secretary of State is appointed and has less influence.

  
  

Texas Executive Fragmentation

• Texas has many executive offices with narrow jurisdictions, creating a decentralized executive branch.

Minority Party Through Quorum Rules

• Minority parties can block legislative action by denying quorum, even if they lack votes.

  
  

One Person, One Vote

• Supreme Court rulings (Baker v. Carr, Reynolds v. Sims) require legislative districts to be based on equal population.

  
  

Redistricting & Gerrymandering

• Districts must be redrawn every 10 years

• Majority parties often manipulate boundaries to maximize their advantage.

  
  

Packing & Cracking

• Two main gerrymandering strategies:

  • P = minority voters into few districts

  • C = minority voters across many districts

Amateur vs Professional Legislatures

• Amateur legislatures (like Texas) have part‑time members and limited staff; professional legislatures have full‑time members and more resources.

  
  

Representation at Two Levels

• Legislators represent both their individual districts and the collective needs of the entire state.

  
  

Descriptive Representation

• Legislators’ identities (race, gender) influence the issues they champion and how well they represent certain groups.

  
  

Committee Power

• Committees decide which bills get hearings, votes, and amendments — making them central to the legislative process.

  
  

Sunset Laws

• Require periodic review of government programs

• Legislatures can terminate programs by not renewing them.

  
  

Initiative Process

• Citizens can place initiatives on the ballot through petition signatures.

  
  

Partisan Control of Legislatures

• State legislatures draw district lines, giving majority parties major influence over future elections.

  
  

Term Limits for State Legislators

• Many states impose term limits (8–16 years), though some have repealed them.

  
  

Texas Legislative Structure

• Texas has a 150‑member House and 31‑member Senate

• Meets for 140 days every other year.

  
  

Texas Special Sessions

• The governor can call unlimited special sessions at any time.

Election Administration Power

• Small administrative decisions (polling locations, deadlines, ballot rules) can significantly affect turnout and outcomes.

  
  

Crisis Governance

• Executives often gain temporary power during emergencies, which can reshape policy and election rules.

  
  

Legislative Gridlock

• Split control or quorum denial can halt legislative action even when majorities exist.

  
  

Policy Implementation

• Executive agencies interpret and enforce laws, giving them major influence over how policy actually works.

  
  

Political Accountability

• Statewide offices (Governor, AG, Secretary of State) face broader electorates and higher scrutiny.