Infancy and Childhood development exam 1

Science of human development

Seeks to understand how and why people — all kinds of people, everywhere, of every age — change over time

Growth is…

Multidirectional, multicontextual, multicultural, multidiscipilinary, plastic

Scientific Method

Way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based conclusions

Nature

The genetic influence on a person

Nurture

The non-genetic influences on each developing person, which include everything from the mother’s nutrition while pregnant to the national culture

Differential Susceptibility

The idea that people vary in how sensitive they are to particular experiences. Often, such differences are genetic, which makes some people affected “for better or for worse” by life events

Life span perspective

Approach to the study of human development that considers all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood

Meaning of development is multidirectional

human characteristics change in every direction

discontinuity versus continuity (rapid or gradual change)

timing of losses and gains (critical and sensitive period)

Meaning of development is multicontextual

ecological system: each person is affected by many social contexts and interpersonal interactions; three nested levels surround individuals and affect them

cohort: people born within same historical period move through life together

meaning of development is multicultural

culture: system of shared beliefs, norms, and behaviors that persist and guide behavior and assumptions

social construction: idea based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality

difference equals deficit error: mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard

ethnic group, race, intersectionality

meaning of development is multidiscipinary

Life-span perspective domains: biological, cognitive, psychosocial

Economics is relevant to life-span development

development is plastic meaning

people change over time and new behavior is affected by what has already happened

dynamic systems approach: human development is viewed as an ongoing ever-changing interaction

Doing science

science is not a belief system

three basic research designs used

three methods of science

survey, observation, experiment

Survey

A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means

benefits: quickest, least expensive, informative

challenges: getting representative sample, refusal to participate, wording and survey construction, misreporting, influence of survey takers

observation

A method of testing a hypothesis

Benefits: unobtrusively watching and recording participants’ behavior by trained observers; systematic and objective manner, naturalistic setting, lab or searches of archival data; data can reflect what people have already done

Experiment

Aims to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one

Designs of Developmental Science

Developmentalists measure how people change or remain the same over time

design cross-sectional, longitudinal or cross-sequential studies

cross-sectional research

comparing groups of people of one age with people of another age

people being compared may not be similar in every way except age

longitudinal research

Collecting data repeatedly on the same individuals as they age

Show when in the lifespan to focus on better health practices, education, and family interactions

cross-sequential research

Studying several groups of people of different ages and following them over the years

Most time-consuming and complex but yields best info

Cautions and Challenges from science

CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION

Quantity and Quality

ethics

Theories of development

Grand theories (developmental): psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive

Newer theories (sociology and biology): sociocultural, evolutionary

Theories

organize scattered facts and confusing observations into patterns, weaving details into a meaningful whole

Developmental Theory

Group of ideas, assumptions and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth

framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development

theories and practice

produce hypotheses

generate discoveries

offer practical guidance

theories and facts

facts are essential for theory

a good theory begins with facts adn leads to hypotheses

Psychodynamic theory

places the origins of adult personality and values in earlier experiences, often unconscious, often in childhood

freud and erikson

freud psychoanalytic theory

four psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, and genital)

early conflict resolution determines personality and patterns

Erik Erikson psychosocial theory

Eight developmental stages, challenging developmental crisis

Five psychosocial stages built on freud’s theory, but an additional three adult stages

Differences from Freud: family and culture, not sexual urges; three stages after adolescence

Behaviorism (learning theory)

focuses on observable behavior

Describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned

Conditioning: repeated experiences teach behavior; a classical meaningful stimulus is connected with a neutral stimulus

Operant: a particular action is followed by something desired or unwanted

classical conditioning

behaviors can be learned by making an association between a meaningful stimulus and a neutral stimulus

Pavlov

Social Learning Theory

extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior

Cognitive theory

thoughts and expectations profoundly affect actions, attitudes, beliefs and assumptions

changes in how people think over time

Piaget

Piaget

cognitive development occurs in four magor age-related periods or stages

Each period is characterized by certain processes related to sense and logic

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Neuroscience

Traces how neurons elsewhere in the body connect to neurons in the brain and affects cognition

Employs ways to use electrodes, magnets, light, and computers to measure brain activity, not just brain size; disproving sexist or racist theories

Discovered brain plasticity and variations not imagined in earlier decades

Newer Theories

Sociocultural, evolutionary

Sociocultural theory

Suggests that human development results from the dynamic interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society

Culture is integral to a person’s development

Vygotsky: interaction between culture and education

Zone of proximal development

process of joint construction

zone of proximal development

skills, knowledge and concepts that learner is close to acquiring but cannot master without help

process of joint construction

new knowledge attained through mentoring

Evolutionary theory

to understand contemporary children and families, we need to understand what emotions, instincts, and habits were needed by homo sapiens over the past 200,000 years

selective adaptation

suggests genetic variations are particularly beneficial when the environment changes and benefits humanity as a whole

What theories contribute

eclectic perspective

ecletic perspective

Occurs when aspects of each of the various theories of development are selectively applied rather than adhering exclusively to one theory

Guards against bias and facilitates open-mindedness to alternative explanations for the complexity of human life

The genetic code

all living things are composed of cells that manufacture proteins according to a code of instructions stored by genes

DNA, chromosomes, alleles, genome, copy number variations (one of 3 billion base pairs is duplicated more often in one person than another, affecting the likelihood of inherited diseases)

2 to 1 to 46 to 21,000 to 3 billion

2 parents’ sperm and ovum, one individual or a single-celled zygote, 46 chromosomes, 21,000 genes spread out along 3 billion base pairs of DNA

epigenetics

The study of how the environment alters genetic expression

begins at conception and continues throughout life

substance use disorder affects genes and brain

plasticity allows for development of cognitive abilities not apparent at birth

New Cells, New people (After Conception cell process)

hours after conception, the zygote duplicates, divides, differentiates and specializes

first, 23 pairs of chromosomes duplicate to form two complete genome sets

cell splites into two cells containing original genetic code

Newborn Cell Amount and Identity

At birth, a newborn has about 26 billion cells

Each cell carries a complete copy of genetic instructions

Stem cells: cells that result from early duplication and division that can produce any other cell and can be edited

In Vitro Fertilization

involves fertilization that takes place outside the uterus by mixing sperm with surgically removed ova from the ovary and implanting a zygote into a uterus

has slightly higher incidence of congential malformations and preterm birth

moral and political issue

Twins

Monozygotic and Dizygotic

Monozygotic (identical) twins

Originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development

Two separations result in monozygotic quadruplets

same genotype but slight variations in phenotype are possible due to environment

dizygotic twins (fraternal)

result from fertilization of two seperate ova by two seperate sperm

dizygotic twins have hal their genes in common

incidence is genetic and varies by ethnicity and age

Genotype

an organisms entire genetic inheritance or genetic potential

phenotype

observable characteristics of an organism, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and other traits

polygenic

trait influenced by many genes

multifactorial

trait affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental

Human-genome project

international effort to map the complete human genetic code

humans have far fewer genes than previously believed

alleles or SNPs are not identical from one person to another

Nature and Nurture: nearsightedness

Age: limited focus at birth; changes in eyeball shape at puberty; decreasing myopia at middle age

Genes: heritability about 75%

Social context: environment (time indoors and reading), homework and lack of play

Not exactly 46

About half of all zygotes have more or fewer than 46 chromosomes; almost all uneven zygotes fail to duplicate, divide, differentiate, implant, and grow, and are spontaneously aborted very early in pregnancy

Gene Disorders (dominant)

many of the 7,000 known single-gene disorders are dominant

severe are rare because most die before reproducing

dominant conditions appearing in adulthood can be passed down

Gene disorders (recessive)

more numerous bevause they are passed down from one generation to teh next by carriers who are unaware of their genotype

x-linked conditions: hemophilia, duchenne muscular dystrophy, fragile x syndrome

common: cystic fibrosis, thalassemia, sickle-cell disease

Genetic counseling Challenges

Data can reveal risks but not reality

Most reported research is on Western Europeans

Genetic research is proceeding faster than practical care

Most genetic differences are “variants of unknown significance”

Genetic Counseling demands

far greater demand for genetic counselors than there are people trained; good prospects and salary

Genetic Counseling Requirements

Understanding and communicating complex biological and statistical material to clients

understanding biology, knowing recent discoveries, and explaining odds and consequences while also reflecting the scope of the patient’s needs

Asking in advance under what circumstances the client wants to know about other conditions that might be found

Prenatal Development

Three stages: germinal period, embryonic period, fetal period

germinal period

first 2 weeks after conception

rapid cell division and beginning of cell differentiation

development of placenta

implantation (about 10 days after conception) - fails when a zygote doesn’t develop as it should

embryonic period

third through eighth week- basic forms of all body structures develop

primitive steak (22 days after conception) becomes the neural tube and later the spine and brain of CNS

head takes shape

ears, eyes, nose and mouth form

extremities develop and webbed fingers and toes seperate

cephalocaudal and proximodistal growth is evident

both male and female potential in a tiny intersex gonad are present

fetal period

ninth week until birth- fetus grows in size and matures in functioning

rapid growth with considerable variation

average: 3 months, 3 ounces, 3 inches

hormones guide growth of body and brain

third month: neurological sex differences begin, overlap is common

Birth

Fetal brain signals the release of hormones to trigger the uterine muscles

labor begins: averaging 12 hrs for 1st birth and 7 hrs for subsequent births

birthing positions vary: sitting, squatting, lying down, water births

prolonged anoxia (lack of oxygen) can cause brain damage or death

Home or Hospital?

Babies are usually born in hospitals but one other family member is allowed to witness (doula may be present to support person in labor)

Home births occur more often in least affluent nations (only 2% of birth in US) : great britain and netherlands

Newborn’s first minutes

cry spontaneously, color changes from blue to red, eyes open, fingers grab, toes stretch

Apgar scale

Apgar scale

quick assessment of newborn’s heart rate, breathing, muscle tone, color, and reflexes

completed twice (1 minute and 5 minutes after birth)

score of 0, 1, or 2 in each category

desired score: 7+

Variations in Drugs

Many obsetricians in developed nations prescribe opioids

over half of US births include epidural

Risk Analysis

Risk analysis discerns which chances are worth taking and how risks are minimized

Teratogens

Teratogens

Any agent or condition, including drugs, viruses, pollutants, malnutrition, stress and more, resulting in congentical disabilities or complications

Limiting harm

Some teratogens cause damage only during a critical period, which may occur before a person knows they are pregnant

Timing:planning a pregnancy
Smoking

Alcohol use

Low Birthweight

less than 2,500 grams at birth (LBW)

under 1,500 grams at birth (VLBW)

under 1,000 grams at birth (ELBW)

Causes of low birth weight

malnutrition

drug use

multiple births

partner’s attitude

untintened pregnancy

consequences of low birth weight

developmental delays

cogntiive, visual and hearing impairments

behavioral difficulties

higher rates of diabetes, obesity, heart disease and depression

Immigrant paradox

Surprising paradoxical fact: low-SES immigrant birthing parents tend to have fewer birth complications than native-born peers with higher incomes

Immigrants are particularly likely to support their relatives who are pregnant, keepign them healthy and buffering stress of poverty

Newborn reflexes

maintaining oxygen, breathing, hiccuping, and sneezing

maintaining constant body temp, crying, shivering, tucking legs to body, and pushing

managing feeding, sucking, rooting and swallowing

babinksi (feet are stroked and toes fan upward), stepping, swimming (stretch out arms and legs when held horrizontally on stomach), palmar grasping, moro (banging on table causes arms to go outward and bring to chest, crying with wide open eyes)

post partum depression

feeling of inadequacy and sadness in the days and weeks after giving birth

rates range from 5 to 27 percent in many nations

Some causes can predate pregnancy

Baby care is complex; the baby may be disappointing

initial euphoria may be followed by anxiety and depression; breastfeeding and social support can help

Birthing parent partner

Also susceptible to postpartum depression

hormonal changes

sleep difficulties

stress

Kangaroo care

newborns sleep more deeply, gain weight quickly, spend more time alert than infants with standard care and are healthier overall

Body changes first two years

birthweight doubles by month 4; triples by year 1

height increases by 10 inches in first year

Sleep first 2 yrs

Ample and regular sleep correlates with typical brain maturation, learning, emotional regulation, academic success, and psychological adjustment

newborns sleep about 15-17 hours a day

REM (rapid-eye movement) sleep

stage of sleep characterized by flickering of eyes behind closed lids, dreaming and rapid brain waves

bed-sharing

when two or more people sleep in the same bed

co-sleeping

parents and their children sleep in the same room

impacted by poverty and culture

Brain growth the first 2 yrs

during infancy: brain grows rapidly, more than other organs, from about 25% of adult weight at birth to 75% at 2

head-sparing protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth

Dendrites sprouting

Newborns have many neurons that go through cell death, but this is counterbalanced by massive gains in dendrites

volume of cortex triples from birth to age 2

Exuberance and Pruning

early dendrite growth is caled transient exuberence

pruning is the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die

Harming Infant Body and Brain

Infants need stimulation

stress hormone overabundance damages brain functioning

need protection: shaken baby syndrome occurs when infant is forecfully shaken back and forth rupturing blood vessles and breaking neural connections

sensory development

typically precedes intellectual and motor development

Sensation

Response of a sensory system (eyes, ears, skin, tongue and nose) when it detects a stimulus

perception

Mental processing of sensory information when the brain interprets a sensation

Hearing

Develops during prenatal life

at birth, sounds trigger reflexes even without perception

soon, infants turn head to see the source of a voice

Seeing

Vision is immature at birth, newborns focus btwn 4 and 30 inches away

binocular vision is found at 3 months

Tasting and Smelling

Function at birth

rapidly adapt to social world

related to familial and cultural preferences

may have evolutionary function

Touch and Pain

Sense of touch is acute in infancts, gentle touch is affective

pain and temp are connected to touch, sugar and breast-feeding relieve pain, pain in newborn is not the same intensity or for same reasons as adults