Chapter 2 Lang

Argument

A persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion

Claim

Also called an assertion or proposition, a claim states the argument’s main idea or position. A claim differs from a topic or subject in that a claim has to be arguable

Claim of fact

asserts that something is true or not true.

Claim of value

argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong

Claim of policy

proposes a change.

Evidence

Support for a claim or argument

Personal experience

Evidence drawn from the writer’s own experience

Personal observations

Evidence the writer has seen but not necessarily experienced

Testimony

An expression of how the writer — or someone the writer is citing — feels about a personal experience or personal observation

Anecdotes

Evidence drawn from stories about other people that the writer has either observed, been told about, or researched

Analogies

comparisons between two unrelated things

Historical information

Verifiable facts that a writer knows from research. This kind of evidence can provide background and context for current issues as well as help establish ethos.

Current events

Evidence drawn from what is happening locally, nationally, and globally. Current events can be interpreted in many ways and may contain bias.

Expert opinion

Evidence based on the knowledge of experts whose jobs and/or experiences give them specialized, credible knowledge

Quantitative evidence

Includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers — for instance, statistics, surveys, polls, experiment results, and census information. It may be presented through verbal explanations or, more often, in illustrations such as graphs, charts, or tables

Lines of reasoning

The connections between the claims in the writer’s argument and the evidence presented to support them.

Thesis

The overarching claim that clearly states the writer’s position in a text

Induction

From the Latin inducere, “to lead into,” induction is a logical process of reasoning from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization

Deduction

Deduction is a logical process that reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise). The process of deduction is usually demonstrated in the form of a syllogism

Syllogism

A logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary

Classical argument

Five-part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians

Introduction(exordium)

Introduces the reader to the subject under discussion. The speaker typically announces the subject and purpose, and appeals to ethos to establish credibility

Narration(narratio)

Also known as exposition today, this provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing.

Confirmation(confirmatio)

Usually the major part of the text, the confirmation develops the proof through evidence to support the writer’s claims

Refutation(refutatio)

Addresses the counterargument. It is a bridge between the writer’s proof and conclusion.

Conclusion(peroratio)

Brings the essay to a satisfying close

Rogerian arguments

Developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers, based on the assumption that fully understanding an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating

Toulmin model

An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin in his book The Uses of Argument (1958). The Toulmin model can be stated as a template: Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant or assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation). Because it is raining, therefore I should probably take my umbrella, since it will keep me dry on account of its waterproof material, unless, of course, there is a hole in it

Warrant

Expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience

Qualifier

words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely that are used to temper claims, making them less absolute.

Rebuttal

presents a contrasting perspective on an argument or its evidence, proposing that some or all of a competing position is unfounded.

Backing

consists of further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority

Reservation

explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier

Assumption

something that you accept as true or take for granted without having actual proof or evidence

Method of development

Modes of expression writers use to achieve their purposes. Each of these modes is a way of thinking — a reasoning pattern that develops and organizes the reasoning of the writer’s argument

Narration

A method of development that tells a story or recounts a series of real-life events. Chronology usually governs narration, which includes concrete details, a point of view, and sometimes such elements as dialogue.

Cause and effect

A method of development that relies on an analysis of the causes that lead to a certain effect or, conversely, the effects that result from a cause

Comparison and contrast

Juxtaposing two things to highlight their similarities and differences. It is useful in explaining distinctions that differentiate between two seemingly similar concepts or ideas. Frequently, an argument will reflect a comparison and contrast of two people, ideas, policies, or viewpoints

Definition

A method of development that conveys details about a concept, an event, or an object to advance an argument

Description

A method of development that evokes the senses by painting a picture of how something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels. Rarely is an entire essay descriptive, but clear and vivid description can make writing more persuasive

Logical fallacies

potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument. They often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it

Red herring fallacy

A type of logical fallacy wherein the speaker relies on distraction to derail an argument, usually by skipping to a new or irrelevant topic. The term derives from the dried fish that trainers used to distract dogs when teaching them to hunt foxes

Ad hominem fallacy

Latin for “to the man,” this fallacy refers to the specific diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker. An argument that a community park should not be renovated because the person supporting it was arrested during a domestic dispute depends on an ad hominem fallacy.

Either or(false dilemma) fallacy

Faulty analogy

A fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are not comparable. For instance, to argue that because we put animals who are in irreversible pain out of their misery, so we should do the same for people, asks the reader to ignore significant and profound differences between animals and people

Hasty generalization

A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence. For example, “Smoking isn’t bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90.”

Post hoc(post hoc ergo prompter hoc) fallacy

This fallacy is Latin for “after which therefore because of which,” meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. One may loosely summarize this fallacy by saying that correlation does not imply causation. For example: “We elected Johnson as president and look where it got us: hurricanes, floods, stock market crashes.”

Straw man fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea. For example, “Politician X proposes that we put astronauts on Mars in the next four years. Politician Y ridicules this proposal by saying that his opponent is looking for ‘little green men in outer space.’”