EVERYTHING, ALL AT ONCE

What does ABC stand for in an emergency assessment?

Airway, Breathing, Circulation. Check and support these life-threatening priorities first.

What is the purpose of triage?

To quickly identify how urgently each patient needs attention and prioritise the most critical patients.

What is a primary survey?

A rapid check for immediate threats to life, focusing on airway, breathing, circulation, mentation and major bleeding.

What is a secondary survey?

A more complete head-to-tail assessment performed after immediate life threats have been addressed.

What should you do first when an emergency patient arrives?

Stay calm, alert the veterinary team, quickly assess for life-threatening problems and begin support within your role.

What are signs of respiratory distress?

Increased effort, fast or noisy breathing, extended neck, open-mouth breathing in cats, abnormal posture, or blue/grey gums.

Why is open-mouth breathing in a cat an emergency sign?

It can indicate significant respiratory distress. Minimise stress and seek immediate veterinary attention.

What can pale or white mucous membranes indicate?

Poor perfusion, anaemia or blood loss. Assess the whole patient and alert the veterinarian.

What can blue or grey mucous membranes indicate?

Inadequate oxygenation or severe circulatory problems. This is an emergency.

What can brick-red mucous membranes indicate?

Possible vasodilation, fever, inflammation or distributive shock. Interpret with other findings.

What does prolonged capillary refill time (CRT) suggest?

Reduced peripheral perfusion may be present. Check gum colour, pulses, temperature and overall condition.

What is shock?

A life-threatening state where tissues do not receive enough oxygenated blood to meet their needs.

What are common signs of poor perfusion?

Weak pulses, pale or abnormal gum colour, prolonged CRT, cool extremities, altered mentation and low blood pressure.

What is haemorrhage?

Bleeding caused by damage to blood vessels. Severe blood loss can lead to hypovolaemic shock.

What is the nursing priority for a patient with severe external bleeding?

Alert the veterinarian and apply appropriate direct pressure with clean gauze while monitoring the patient.

What is hypoglycaemia?

Abnormally low blood glucose. It can cause weakness, tremors, disorientation, seizures or collapse.

What is hyperthermia?

An abnormally high body temperature. Identify the cause and follow veterinary cooling and monitoring instructions.

What is hypothermia?

An abnormally low body temperature. Provide controlled warming and monitor temperature and perfusion.

Why should an unstable patient be handled gently?

Stress and excessive handling can worsen oxygen demand, pain and cardiovascular or respiratory compromise.

What does mentation describe?

The patient's level of awareness and responsiveness, such as alert, quiet, obtunded, stuporous or comatose.

What is the purpose of recording a baseline set of observations?

It provides a starting point so changes and trends can be recognised and reported.

What should you do if a patient's condition suddenly deteriorates?

Call the veterinarian immediately, communicate the change clearly, support ABC priorities and record the event and actions.

What does CPR stand for?

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation: emergency measures used when a patient has cardiopulmonary arrest.

What is the purpose of basic life support (BLS)?

To provide circulation and ventilation using chest compressions and breaths until circulation returns or resuscitation ends.

Which RECOVER CPR guidelines are used for dogs and cats?

The 2024 RECOVER CPR Guidelines are the updated evidence-based guidelines for canine and feline CPR.

When should BLS be started in a dog or cat?

If the patient is unresponsive and not breathing normally, unless a valid do-not-resuscitate order applies. Follow the clinic's emergency protocol.

What is the recommended chest compression rate in dog and cat CPR?

100–120 compressions per minute.

How deep should chest compressions be in lateral recumbency?

Approximately one-third to one-half of the chest width at the compression point, allowing full recoil.

How deep should chest compressions be in dorsal recumbency?

Approximately one-quarter of the chest depth at the compression point.

Why must the chest fully recoil between compressions?

Full recoil allows the heart to refill with blood before the next compression.

How long are CPR compression cycles in intubated dogs and cats?

Use uninterrupted 2-minute cycles of chest compressions, then reassess with pauses kept under 10 seconds.

How often should an intubated dog or cat be ventilated during CPR?

10 breaths per minute, or one breath every 6 seconds.

How long should each ventilation breath take during CPR?

About 1 second, with enough time for passive exhalation.

What compression-to-ventilation ratio is recommended for single-rescuer CPR in a non-intubated dog or cat?

30 compressions to 2 breaths (30:2), when breaths can be delivered safely.

What ventilation equipment is preferred for a non-intubated patient during CPR?

A tight-fitting face mask with a manual resuscitator, when available.

When may compression-only CPR be appropriate?

When rescue breathing is unsafe or there is a risk to the rescuer, such as possible zoonotic disease or narcotic exposure.

What is ROSC?

Return of spontaneous circulation: the patient's own circulation has returned after CPR.

What does ETCO2 measure?

The concentration or partial pressure of carbon dioxide at the end of exhalation; during CPR it helps assess blood flow and compression effectiveness.

What ETCO2 level should rescuers aim to achieve during CPR under RECOVER 2024?

Optimise CPR to achieve ETCO2 of at least 18 mmHg, while interpreting it with the full clinical picture.

What may a sudden, sustained ETCO2 rise during CPR suggest?

It may indicate ROSC, especially when accompanied by a pulse distinct from chest compressions.

What are the two shockable CPR rhythms?

Ventricular fibrillation (VF) and pulseless ventricular tachycardia (pulseless VT).

What are two non-shockable CPR rhythms?

Asystole and pulseless electrical activity (PEA).

What does asystole mean?

No detectable electrical activity on the ECG; confirm leads and equipment before interpreting.

What does PEA mean?

Electrical activity is present on the ECG, but there is no effective pulse or circulation.

What is the purpose of defibrillation?

To deliver an electrical shock to treat shockable rhythms such as ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia.

What is an important change in the 2024 RECOVER drug recommendations?

High-dose epinephrine is no longer recommended; atropine, if used, is given only once.

Why should CPR pauses be minimised?

Stopping compressions reduces blood flow to vital organs. Keep rhythm-check pauses under 10 seconds where possible.

What is the nursing role during a CPR event?

Perform the assigned role, maintain high-quality compressions or ventilation, prepare equipment, record drugs and times, communicate clearly and follow the team leader.

What should happen after ROSC?

Begin post-cardiac arrest care: support oxygenation and ventilation, monitor circulation and temperature, identify the cause and follow the veterinarian's plan.

What is general anaesthesia?

A controlled, reversible state of unconsciousness with loss of awareness and response to stimuli.

What are the main goals of balanced anaesthesia?

Provide unconsciousness, analgesia and muscle relaxation while minimising adverse effects and supporting vital functions.

What is pre-anaesthetic assessment?

Assessment of the patient's history, physical status, hydration, cardiovascular and respiratory function, and relevant test results before anaesthesia.

What is the purpose of an anaesthetic pre-check?

To confirm the patient, procedure, equipment, drugs, monitoring and emergency supplies are ready before induction.

What does ASA physical status describe?

A classification of the patient's overall health and systemic disease burden before anaesthesia; it helps assess risk.

What is premedication?

Medication given before induction to reduce anxiety, provide analgesia and/or sedation, and help reduce anaesthetic requirements.

What is induction of anaesthesia?

The process of bringing the patient from consciousness into the anaesthetised state.

What is maintenance of anaesthesia?

Keeping the patient at an appropriate anaesthetic depth throughout the procedure.

What is the purpose of an endotracheal tube (ETT)?

To maintain a patent airway and allow controlled delivery of oxygen and inhalant anaesthetic gases.

How can correct ETT placement be checked?

Visualise passage through the vocal cords where possible, assess chest movement and breath sounds, and confirm with sustained waveform capnography.

What is the purpose of an anaesthetic breathing circuit?

To deliver oxygen and anaesthetic gases and allow the patient to breathe in and out.

What is the purpose of the reservoir bag?

It stores gas, allows visual assessment of breathing and can be used to provide assisted breaths when appropriate.

What does the oxygen flowmeter control?

The rate of oxygen flowing into the anaesthetic breathing system, usually measured in litres per minute.

What is the purpose of the vaporiser?

It adds a controlled concentration of volatile anaesthetic agent to the fresh gas flow.

What does an anaesthetic scavenging system do?

Removes waste anaesthetic gases from the breathing system to reduce staff exposure.

What does ECG monitor?

The electrical activity and rhythm of the heart; it does not directly measure cardiac output or guarantee a pulse.

What does pulse oximetry (SpO2) estimate?

The percentage of haemoglobin saturated with oxygen in arterial blood.

What is a commonly expected SpO2 in a well-oxygenated anaesthetised dog or cat?

Usually about 95–100% when measured reliably; interpret trends and signal quality, and investigate persistent low readings.

What does capnography measure?

End-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) and the pattern of exhaled CO2 over time.

What is a commonly expected ETCO2 range during routine anaesthesia in dogs and cats?

Often around 35–45 mmHg, but interpret against patient condition, ventilation, equipment and clinic reference ranges.

What does non-invasive blood pressure monitoring measure?

An estimate of arterial blood pressure using a cuff and monitor.

What are systolic, diastolic and mean arterial pressure (MAP)?

Systolic is peak arterial pressure; diastolic is the lowest pressure between beats; MAP is the average pressure over the cardiac cycle.

Why is MAP important during anaesthesia?

It helps assess organ perfusion. A persistently low MAP may indicate hypotension and needs prompt assessment.

What is a commonly used threshold for anaesthetic hypotension?

A systolic pressure below about 90 mmHg or MAP below about 60–65 mmHg is commonly concerning; use clinic protocol and assess the patient.

What does a temperature monitor help identify?

Hypothermia or hyperthermia, which can affect recovery, drug metabolism and cardiovascular function.

Why are anaesthetised patients prone to hypothermia?

Anaesthetic drugs reduce thermoregulation, and heat is lost through the environment, exposed tissues and body fluids.

What is the purpose of monitoring anaesthetic depth?

To ensure adequate anaesthesia without excessive depth, using multiple signs rather than relying on one parameter.

What signs may suggest an anaesthetic plane is too light?

Movement, swallowing, increased jaw tone, eye position changes or increases in heart rate/blood pressure in response to stimulation.

What signs may suggest anaesthesia is too deep?

Marked cardiovascular or respiratory depression, very low blood pressure, weak pulses and poor responses; assess the full patient and alert the veterinarian.

What is the purpose of an anaesthetic record?

To document drugs, doses, times, vital signs, interventions and patient responses throughout anaesthesia.

What should you check first if SpO2 suddenly drops?

Check the patient first, then assess probe placement and signal, perfusion, oxygen supply, airway, ETT and breathing circuit; alert the veterinarian.

What can cause a falsely low SpO2 reading?

Movement, poor peripheral perfusion, cold extremities, incorrect probe placement, bright light or signal interference.

What can cause a high ETCO2 reading?

Hypoventilation, increased CO2 production, rebreathing or equipment problems; assess the patient and circuit.

What can cause a low ETCO2 reading?

Hyperventilation, reduced cardiac output, hypotension, disconnection, leak or sampling-line problems.

What should you do if the capnography waveform disappears?

Check the patient and airway immediately, then check the ETT connection, breathing circuit, sampling line and monitor.

What is hypoventilation?

Inadequate ventilation, causing carbon dioxide retention and potentially respiratory acidosis.

What is hyperventilation?

Ventilation greater than the body's CO2 production, which can lower ETCO2 and cause respiratory alkalosis.

What is hypotension?

Abnormally low blood pressure that may reduce perfusion of vital organs.

What are possible causes of hypotension during anaesthesia?

Excessive anaesthetic depth, hypovolaemia, blood loss, vasodilation, reduced cardiac function or other disease.

What is bradycardia?

An abnormally slow heart rate for the patient's species, size, age and situation.

What is tachycardia?

An abnormally fast heart rate for the patient's species, size, age and situation.

What should you do if the patient becomes apnoeic under anaesthesia?

Alert the veterinarian immediately, check the airway and circuit, assess oxygenation and ventilation, and assist ventilation as directed.

What is regurgitation?

Passive movement of stomach contents into the oesophagus or mouth.

Why is regurgitation dangerous under anaesthesia?

Stomach contents can enter the airway and cause aspiration pneumonitis or pneumonia.

What is aspiration?

Entry of fluid, food or other material into the respiratory tract.

What is the purpose of checking the cuff on an ETT?

To help create an airway seal and reduce leakage or aspiration risk, without overinflating and damaging the trachea.

What should you do if the patient is too cold during recovery?

Use controlled warming methods, monitor temperature frequently and avoid burns or rapid overheating.

Why should warming devices not contact skin directly unless designed for it?

They can cause thermal burns, especially in anaesthetised or poorly perfused patients.

What is the priority during anaesthetic recovery?

Maintain a clear airway and monitor breathing, circulation, temperature, pain and level of consciousness.

Why is recovery a high-risk period?

Residual anaesthetic effects can cause airway obstruction, hypoventilation, hypothermia and cardiovascular depression.

What are signs of airway obstruction during recovery?

Noisy breathing, increased respiratory effort, paradoxical chest movement, poor airflow or falling oxygen saturation.