Kin 3346: Midterm: Lecs 5-7 (FOCUS)

what is motor behaviour

• how humans acquire, plan, and execute movements that require skill and coordination

• observable changes in the learning and performance of a particular movement or motor skill

• product of biological characteristics and environmental influence

• how humans learn, control, and develop movement skills

motor behaviour consists of (3):

1. motor control

2. motor learning

3. motor development

1: motor control

underlying processes of movement

• neural + physical + behavioural = optimizes skill acquisition

motor control: 3 main issues

1. degrees of freedom

2. serial order

3. peceptual-motor integration

1st issue in motor control: degrees of freedom

• Number of independent elements that must be constrained to produce coordinated motion

• coordination

coordination definition

• Constraining the number of degrees of freedom to decrease the complexity of the movement task to produce a movement pattern and achieve a task goal

• bringing parts into proper relationship with one another

• increased coordination leads to a more positive task outcome

• performing an activity more fluidly through practice

2nd issue in motor control: serial order

• sequencign and order of movement behaviours

• timing and order of an activity are critical for nearly every movement we produce

• people prepare an action plan rather than planning and executing one thought at a time - much more efficient, but can lead to an action slip, due to thinking about the action rather than specifics of the task

serial order - coarticulation

• when performing sequential movements, the execution of one movement can influence the next - more fluid and efficient performance

• preparing for subsequent movements rather than completing one movement before preparing for the next

• we preplan activities to move efficiently, ex. writing, grasping

3rd issue of motor control: perceptual-motor integration

• how perception and motor control are integrated

• perception and movement work together, continuously influencing one another

  • → moving closer to something to see or hear it better; movement improves perception

  • → altering grip based on perceived weight: perception improves movement

motor learning definiton

• processes involved in the acuisition of a motor skill

• factors that enhance or inhibit the ability to perform a motor skill

• a direct result of practice

motor learning: actual definition

a relatively permanent change in the ability to execute a motor skill because of practice or experience rather than maturation or phyiological training

characteristics of motor learning (1-4)

1. a process is required to induce a change in the ability to perform skillfully

2. it must occur as a direct result of practice

3. it cannot be observed directly

4. assumed to produce positive, irrevesible effects in the capability for skilled behaviour

1st characteristic of ML: a process is required to induce a change in the ability to perform skillfully

process

• sets of events or occurrences resulting in a change in the end product

• ex. drills in sport are processes with the goal of improving the capability to perform skillfully

2nd characteristic of ML: it must occr as a direct result of practice

• motor learning is not due to maturation or physiological training

• a change that occurs because of maturation is a motor development change

• → learning to walk is motor development, not motor learning, because it is a motor skill that almost all humans acquire

• learning to shoot a basketball requires practice and is due to motor learning

3rd characteristic of ML: it cannot be observed directly

• it can only be assumed based on long-term performance changes

• assumed to have occurred when realtively permanent changes in the capability of skilled behaviour are observed through performance changes

4th characteristic of ML: assumed to produce positive, irreversible effects in the capability for skilled behaviour

• these changed are not temporary

• “its like learning to ride a bicycle”

skill

ML: progression in skill from a novice who is first attempting a motor skill to a skillfull performer

• skill = learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximal certainty, often with a minimum outlay of time or energy

skillfull performer definition

achieved a criterion of excellence and is capable of performing at a high level most of the time

components of movement skills (3)

1. cognitive

2. perceptual

3. motor

cognitive skills

• intellctual skills of the mover

• enable a performer to make decisions and solve problems

• EX. decision-making speed is critical for a quarterback in american football, who must make quick, effective decisions

perceptual skills

• involve interpreting and integrating sensory info to determine the best movement outcome

• attention and previous movement experiences affect perceptual skils

  • EX. a soccer player assesses the positon of defenders and teammates to determine whether to pass the ball to an open player or continue dribbling towards the goal - the speed and direction of athletes movements depend on the perceptual info she receives regarding the current situation

physical elements that enable movement (motor skills)

• stability

• locomotor skills

• manipulation skills

• the activity could not be completed without the learned ability to coordinate the limbs to produce the action

steps for learning a new motor skill (skills are classified according to:)

• understand basic elements and sequence of movements

• break activity down into basic skills

• skills are classified according to:

  • movement precision

  • environmental predictability

  • time constraints

  • nature of the skill

1: movement precision

• motor skills: can be classified by size of muscle groups being used to produce movement pattern and consequently, precision of movement

• gross: large muscle groups produce movement

  • tend to be much larger, less precise movements

  • walking, running, jumping, squatting

• fine: skills where precise movements are critical o perform w/ increased accuracy and control

  • use smaller muscle groups

  • dialing a phone number, playing piano, typing

2: skills classified by → environmental predictability

• skills can also be classified according to the predictability of the environment

  • closed skills

  • open skills

closed skills

• skills used in tasks that takes place in a stable environment in which objects or events are also stationary

• goal is to perform movement correctly then replicate the action

• a free throw in basketball

  • not constrained by time or space, environment is stable

  • shooter does not have to pay attention to defenders trying to steal or block

  • distance to hoop and height of hoop stable

open skills

• occur in environment which objects, people, and events constantly changing

• skills require moveer be more attentive to environment, constantly monitoring situation for changing conditions

• a hockey slap shot

environmental precitability is a spectrum

a continuum

• no skills are entirely closed

• there are always some conditions that will change

  • pressure of a situation

  • motivation

  • time demands

  • predictability is always musch greater for closed skills than open skills

inertial variability

• any change that occurs between trials

• a skill with high inertial variability has aspects that change with every performance attempt

• can be present in both closed and open skills

low inertial variability

• batting in tee ball (closed skill)

• the key to success is consistency

high inertial variability

• batting in baseball (open skill)

• each pitch is unique, requiring batter to adapt to changing conditions

3: time constraints

the difficulty of a task can be determined by its pacing

• self paced tasks

• externally paced tasks

self paced tasks

• initated by the mover (golf, darts, archery)

• basketball players shooting foul shots often engage in preliminary routines prior to shooting

  • they can adopt a routing because the shot is not constrained by time

  • accuracy is the key

externally paced tasks

• the batters movements are externally paced tasks because she is responding to the pitched ball

• she does not have the luxury of swinging whenever she desires

• a pitcher determines when to initiate the pitche, so the pitch is self-paced

4: nature of the skill - discrete motor skills

• beginning and end points are clearly defined

• generally short in duration and have a distinct difference between their initiation and termination

• a period that must elapse before subsequent movement must occur- ex. quarterback must ait to receive a ball before passing

• ex. throwing, kicking, punching, shooting, catching

4: nature of the skill - continuous motor skills

• do not have clearly defined beginning and end points

• longer in duration and mover is in constant motion

• movements are generally simple and continuously repeated

• ex. running, swimming, cross-country skiing, cycling

4: nature of the skill - serial motor skills

• series of dicrete skill that must occur in a specific sequence

• if the order of movemens cna be altered, task would not be classified as a serial task

• each component can be performed separately as a discrete skill, such as catching, dribbling, jumping, and shooting

• serial skills require that the performer not only be skillful at the discrete skills independently, but also be able to transition from one movement to the next in the proper sequence

4: nature of skill - closed serial skill

• the triple jump, consisting of an approach, hop, skip, and jump

• if the sequence were altered to a hop, approach, jump, and skip, this combo would no longer be considered the triple jump

4: nature of skill - open serial skill

• a basketball layup when performed in a game because defenders can alter the timing and position of the movement

stages of learning

• learners progress through a series of stages when improving motor skill competence

• several models address the behavioural features of these stages

Fitts and Posner 3 stage learning model

regardless of age or motor skill, all learned go though each of these stages when advancing from a novice level to an expert level

1. cognitive

2. associative

3. autonomous

cognitive stage

• main goal is to understand the basic components of the motor skill movement pattern

• learenrs require a considerable amount of mental activity to understand the movement pattern and appropriately coordinate their limbs

  • novice learners often mentally verbalize their movements

• attending to ones movements is a neessary process in learning any skill, but it often causes movements to appear choppy and uncoordinated

cognitive stage steps

• learners must attempt a number of techniques in a trial-and-error process until theyve achieved success

• the use of verbal isntruction, feedback, modeling

• verbal instruction combined with passive movements can be as effective in learning a new movement pattern as active movements

• cognitive stage- the largest gains in learning occur

• learners begin with very little knowledge of the motor skill and make rapid

roles in the cognitive stage

associative stage

• once learners have a basic understanding of the task and have shown significant imporvement in the movement pattern, they haveprogressed to the associative stage of learning

• the goal has shifted from learning how to solve the movement problem refining the movement

characteristics of associative stage

• performance improvements are more gradual

• learners perform more consistently and can focus on error detection and correction

• dont have to focus as much on production of movement - can attend to other sources of info

• the verbal component (self-talk) is no longer present in production of the movement pattern because its no longer necessary or beneficial

roles in associative stage

• the role fo the instructor shifts from instructing to designing appropriate and effetive practice sessions

• the learner understands the basic movement pattern but still benefits from instructor feedback regarding errors and fine-tuning the movements

autonomous stage

• the highest skill level

• to progress to final stage, learners must practice for extended period, often many years

• most people do not make it to autonomous stage

• performer is so skilled the movement appears automatic, may be able to perform an additional task at same time, like controlling ball while driving down the court and making play decisions

• mover can focus on decision-making strats, which are critical for high level performance in open skills, like wrestling and rugby

fitts and posner, juggling example

best way to teach movement skills

• practitioners lead learners through a progression of movements to perform an open skill proficiently

• best to place learners in a closed environment where task can be simplified and controlled before progressing to a more challenging and adaptable open environment

steps for teaching a new skill (3)

1. simplify task by focusing on only 1 aspect of the movement at a time

2. begin with a stable task

3. as performer increases in competence, more difficulty can be added, like increased locomotion and manipulation of an implement

teaching kicking a ball ex. step by step progression

• kick a stationary ball in to a goal while standing still

• take a step and kick a stationary ball into a goal

• run and kick a stationary ball into a goal

• dribble the ball and kick into a goal

• dribble ball and kick into a goal thats guarded

gentile’s taxonomy

• classification system for gradual progressions from closed to open environments

• useful for individualizing motor skill progressions

• uses 2 main categories to assist in program development

  • environmental context

  • action requirements

gentiles taxonomy: environmental context

• regulatory conditions: stationary or moving

• inertial variability: consistent or variable

gentiles taxonomy: action requirements

• manipulation: absent or present

• body orientation: stability or body transport

gentiles taxonomy as a 16-category system for classifying MS

• combines the 4 classifications for the environmental context with the 4 classifications of the action requirements, creating 16-category system for classifying motor skills

• enables an instructor to implement a precise skill progression appropriately for learners of all developmental levels to enable them to progress to their desired level of difficulty

gentiles taxonomy: push up example

• motor skills become increasingly complex from the upper-left quadrant to the lower-right quadrant

• the push-up, in first quadrant, is the task lowest in complexity

• little variability in performing a pushup from trial to trial

• when performing successive pushups, performer simply needs to repeat the previous movement until reaching muscle failure or achieving a goal

• no body transport or object manipulation is required

gentiles taxonomy: passing football ex

• throwing a football pass, lower right quadrant, is complex

• quarterback must be able to anticipate the receivers position and the time and location of the pass

• must also be able to adapt to various environmental conditions with each performance attempt while transporting his body and manipulating the ball

how to USE gentiles taxonomy (tennis ex.)

• depicts how taxonomy was designed to be used by practitioners

• not expected that learners will move through each stage; rather, they will likely progress through several stages

• allows for variety of options including more progressions for learners who may need slower progression to the whole motor skill in real time

motor development definition:

• age related, successive changes in movement abilities that occur over the life span and he processes and factors affecting these changes

• changes that occur during a short period that are not associated with practice or experience, such as a child throwing farther or running faster betwee ages of 2-3, would be due to motor development

motor development maps chronoligical age…

maps chronological age (age from birth ex.) to the emergence of a new motor milestone (ex. sitting, crawling, standing) or a new motor skill (ex. throwing, kicking, or galloping)

motor develope integrates which body systems

• an expression of the integrationg of many body systems, each of hich has an important role in movement

  • musculoskeletal

  • sensory

  • cardiorespiratory

  • neurological

what is particularly important for young childrens development

• interaction with the environment (behavioural aspect)

• critical that young children develop a wide variety of movement patterns during their earlier years to provide a foundation for more complex movements

motor competence

• measurement aspect of a movement

• a minimal threshold of motor competence s deemed necessary to develop more complex skills

developing adequate levels of motor competence is associated with:

• higher levels of PA participation

• improved health and weight status

• continued development of motor competence throughout an individuals life span

historical periods of growth and motor development

• precursor period = 1787-1928

• maturational period = 1928-1946

• normative period = 1946-1970

• process-oriented period = 1970-present

precursor period

1787-1928

• based on descriptive observations

• focus on the outcome of development

• nature vs. nurture (darwin)

  • nature - genetic/internal

  • nurture = environmental

nature vs. nurture (maturationists vs. environmentalists)

• nature - born with the underlying abilities to excel at certain sports; will eventually exhibit excellence in those sports

• nurture - even basic skills must be developed through interaction with the environment

  • if nto given appropriate equipment or environment to learn, development will be delayed, or skills never materialize

gene x environment interaction (darwin)

Charles Darwin’s work was seminal in study of motor behaviour

• provided insights into effect of environment on the animal

• theorized how animals adapt to changing environments and discussed developmental sequences found across species

• wrote about importance of studying both the product of the behaviour an the process

maturational period

1928-196

• pioneered by Arnold Gesell

• maturation is genertically predetermined; infant moves from oe developmental cycle to the next, in orderly fashion, regardless of practice, training, or effort

maturational period examples

• infants don’t have to be taught how to walk- they do so once they reach a certain age

• infants roll over at 5 months, si tup at 6 months, and stand at 8

maturationists assume that transitions are set and controlled by nature

• children progress to the next step when they are ready

• external influences are not included in these transitions

• an “internal clock” determines precisely when the infanct will progress

maturational period: environment can influence transitions

• a child who never lies on belly will crawl much later than baby who got regular tummy time

  • no belly time childs environment has delayed transition because infant wasnt given opportunity to strengthen arm, leg, and core muscles needed for crawling

• children who are blind are significantly delayed reaching many milsetones

  • lack of visual stimuli would motivate them to reach objects of interest as well as help replicate actions seen from peers

normative period

• focus on movement skills in school aged children and physical aspects of development

• physical educators wanted to improve motor skill instruction through understanding changes in motor performance

• focus on the processes of underlying performance changes when new simple motor skills are learned

process-oriented period

1970-present

• hypothesis driven motor behavior research

• 3 theoretical concepts emerged:

  • information-processing theory

  • ecological approach

  • dynamic systems approach

information-processing theory

the brain receives, processes, and interprets info to send sinals to produce skilled coordinated movements, similar to how a computer functions

ecological approach

• movement is much more complex than a simple input-output relay of info from the brain to the other systems

• actions are determined by many internal factors (ex. goals and capabilities) and external factors (ex. what is available in the environment)

dynamic systems approach

• movement does not occur because of a set of instructions but rather as the result of th inter-play of the task, the environment, and the individual

• movement is softly assembled, meaning that it emerges because of these 3 factors

information-processing theory

• the brain acts like a computer, working as a receiver and processor of information

• addresses the processes involved in movement behaviour

• shift from investigating ontogenetic (lifespan) changes to processes of change within a lifespan, ex. memory, feedback, attention, and perception

generalized motor program

• patterns of movements that is modifiable to produce a movement outcome

• every movement has a set of instructions stored in the brain

• when we perform a movement, we retrieve this set of instructions, sending the message to the appropriate muscles

• the time needed to organize a motor program depends on the complexity of the task; more complex asks require more time

reaction time

• time from the onset of a stimulus to the initiation of the response

• increases with increasing complexity

  • lift finger = 165ms

  • lift fingr, grasp ball = 199 ms

  • lift finger, hit ball, push button, grasp ball = 212 ms

• movements are planned prior to initiating a response

• more time requires to prepare motor programs for more complex tasks

invariant features

generalized motor program must have invariant features

• features that cannot be modified between attempts

• unique to their GMP

  

invariant features of a GMP (3)

1. sequence of actions

2. relative timing

3. relative force

1: sequence of actions

• coordination or movement sequences for a motor skill

  • layup-dribbling, two steps, and then a shot

  • punt-catch, approach, drop the ball, and then kick the ball

• if the sequence of actions were changes, the motor skill likely couldnt even be performed

relative timing and force

• enable the rhythm of the movement pattern

• movements can be performed with more force or less force, or faster or slower timing

• all components of the skill must increase or decrease in force or speed, not just one component

• by changing only one component, the rhythm of the motor skill with change

2: relative timing

• volleyball serve

  • a swing to hit a volleyball during a serve must be relative to the timing of the toss

  • slowing down the toss of the ball but not slowing down the swing, the overall movement pattern would be compromised

• walking

  • a person can walk at many speeds; however, the relative timing will remain the same unless the person transitions to running

3: relative force - kicking a ball

• the force of your foot contacting a ball during a kick should be relative to the force with which you approached the ball and the movement of your leg

• to kick a ball harder, an athlete must proportionately increase the amount of force produced when planting the nondominant foot, swinging the dominant foot back, swinging the dominant foot forward, and contacting the ball

• GET NOTES FROM MACK

GMP: modifiable features

• modifiable features = paramaters

• allow responses to be adapted

  • walk at different speeds

  • shoot basketball from different positions on the court

  • kick with more force or less force

modifiable features of a GMP (3)

1. muscle selection

2. overall duration

3. overall force

1: muscle selection

• writing with non-dominant vs. dominant hand

• use of different muscle groups

• the GMP is the same for writing/throwing with your left hand as it is fro writing/throwing with your right hand

2: overall duration

• a quarterback in NFL cna throw a short pass to a running back pr throw a much farther for a hail mary pass to a wide receiver

• the GMP is the same for running slowly as it is for running fast

3: overall force

• unscrewing a very tight lid vs. a loose one

• a rugby conversion or NFL field goal from 20 m vs. 60 m

• the GMP is the same for batting with more overall force as it is fro batting with less overall force

varying parameters

• varying paramteters appropriate to the situation is particularly essential for open skills

• basketball players must vary each shot depending on their position relative to the basket

• shortstops must vary their throws to reach different bases

speed-accuracy

• speed and accuracy are important in many motor skills, particularly those that have a temoral and spatial component such as in racket sports and fielding games

• although both accuracy and speed may be important in these motor skills, when a person focuses on one, the other is compromised

information-processing theory SUMMARY

• all movements have a set of instructions (GMP)

• the GMP has invariant features

  • sequence of actions

  • relative timing

  • relative force

• and modifiable features

  • muscle selection

  • overall duration

  • overall timing

ecological approach: perception

• perception: the act of attaching meaning to something

• enables us to interact with the environment in a meaningful way, ex. we perceive the sizes of objects and determine how to adjust our grip to manipulate them

• we perceive through out senses (vision, hearing, and kinesthesis), but perception is also affected by our personal experiences and understanding

ecological approach: memory stores

• rejects idea that there is a need to search for memory stores for object representations

• the acts of perceiving and moving occur simultaneously

ecological approacg: direct vs. indirect perception

• uses direct perception

• objects used to suit goals or needs (direct perception), not because there is a prior memory of using that object (indirect perception)

ecological vs. information processing

• relationship b/w perception and action are viewed diff b/w the ecological approach and info-processing theory

• ecological = direct process as using memory stores not needed to provide meaning to objects or events in the environment

• info-processing = action occurs as an indirect process as of perception, ex. to act on the environment, a person must go through a series of steps

ex. of indirect process (information processing theory)

• input

• perception

• decision-making

• execution

• feedback