American Politics and Public Policy Institutions

What is an institution?

Rules governing patterns of behavior.

What are formal institutions?

Institutions based on codified rules.

Give an example of a formal institution.

Federal or state legislatures.

What are informal institutions?

Group norms and shared beliefs.

Give an example of an informal institution.

Political parties or cultural beliefs.

What is one purpose of institutions in complex societies?

Encourage cooperation and stability.

How do institutions affect knowledge?

They give knowledge legitimacy and preserve it over time.

What helps an institution remain legitimate?

Belief in its mission and competence.

Why did reasoning evolve according to Mercier and Sperber?

To justify ourselves and persuade others.

What is another function of reasoning?

Evaluating other people's arguments.

Why is reasoning important for policy analysts?

They must persuade others to accept their conclusions.

Why is reasoning important for policy audiences?

It helps them accept good arguments and reject bad ones.

What are the two chambers of Congress?

The House and Senate.

How many members are in the House?

435.

How many members are in the Senate?

100.

Name one major power of Congress.

Enacting laws.

Who confirms presidential appointees?

The Senate.

Which branch can investigate the executive branch?

Congress.

How do most state budgets differ from the federal budget?

Most states must pass balanced budgets.

What is legislative preemption?

Higher-level legislatures limiting lower-level government authority.

What does a "picket-fence" policy approach imply?

Each level of government stays within an appropriate policy role.

What does "limited jurisdiction" mean for federal courts?

They can hear only legally authorized cases.

What is legal standing?

A legal basis for a plaintiff to bring a case.

What does it mean when a case is moot?

There is no longer an ongoing dispute to resolve.

How can courts create public policy?

Through rulings that affect rights, laws, or government practices.

What can an injunction do?

Require or prohibit particular actions.

What did Brown v. Board of Education (1954) hold?

Separate schools are not equal.

What earlier case did Brown overturn?

Plessy v. Ferguson.

What did Brown II require?

Desegregation "with all deliberate speed."

Who was largely responsible for implementing Brown?

School authorities and lower courts.

What is de jure segregation?

Segregation backed by the state.

What is de facto segregation?

Segregation without a direct state cause.

What did Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) establish?

A right to same-sex marriage.

What did Roe v. Wade (1973) establish?

States could not prohibit abortion before viability.

What did Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992) do?

Reaffirmed Roe's central holding.

What did Dobbs v. Jackson (2022) do?

Overturned the federal right to abortion.

What was the Chevron doctrine?

Courts deferred to agencies on reasonable interpretations of ambiguous statutes.

Why did Chevron give agencies deference?

Agency expertise and executive accountability.

What did Loper Bright v. Raimondo (2024) do?

Overruled Chevron.

After Loper Bright, what must agencies do?

Persuade courts of their statutory interpretations.

Why are courts limited in implementing policy?

They lack direct control over executive agencies.

What does court authority heavily depend upon?

Respect for the law.

Why are courts sometimes called the "weakest" branch?

They have limited ability to implement their decisions.

Why can courts still be important for excluded groups?

They provide a last-resort avenue for policy change.

Which constitutional article establishes presidential authority?

Article II.

What did Hamilton advocate in Federalist 70?

An energetic executive.

What creates executive "energy" according to Hamilton?

Unity under a single chief executive.

What did Federalists favor?

A powerful central government.

How did Federalists interpret the Constitution?

Loosely.

What did Jeffersonian Republicans favor?

Strong states and a weaker central government.

How did Jeffersonians interpret the Constitution?

Strictly.

What was the spoils system?

Government jobs given to political supporters.

What major problem resulted from the spoils system?

Cronyism and corruption.

What did the Brownlow Committee worry about?

Agencies becoming too independent of the president.

What did the Reorganization Act of 1939 create?

The Executive Office of the President.

What is one problem presidents face in controlling bureaucracy?

They cannot closely manage hundreds of organizations.

Why are presidents dependent on bureaucrats?

Bureaucrats implement presidential policies.

What are three reforms recommended in the Lewis material?

Better analysis, stable leadership, and modernized personnel.

Who developed the model of "ideal bureaucracy" discussed in class?

Max Weber.

What does division of labor mean in Weberian bureaucracy?

Each office has defined duties and authority.

What does hierarchy mean in Weberian bureaucracy?

Lower offices report to higher offices.

Why does bureaucracy use written rules?

To ensure consistent decisions.

Why are written records important?

They preserve accountability and continuity.

How should bureaucratic officials be selected ideally?

Based on expertise and qualifications.

What does impersonality mean in bureaucracy?

Decisions follow rules rather than personal relationships.

What does career employment mean in bureaucracy?

Public service is an ongoing professional career.

Why is expertise important in bureaucracy?

Government handles complex problems requiring specialized knowledge.

What did the Pendleton Act of 1883 establish?

A merit-based federal civil service.

What did the Hatch Act of 1939 restrict?

Political activity by federal employees at work.

What is the Competitive Service?

Merit-based federal hiring through competition.

What is the Excepted Service?

Hiring outside normal competitive service for specialized needs.

What were historically dominant public-administration values?

Efficiency, economy, and effectiveness.

What public-administration value became prominent after the 1960s?

Social equity and justice.

What is efficiency?

Using the fewest resources possible.

What is effectiveness?

Producing the desired result.

What is equity?

Promoting fairness between groups.

What is the efficiency-responsiveness tension?

Saving resources vs. responding to citizen needs.

What is a principal-agent problem?

Agents may pursue different goals than those overseeing them.

What information problem contributes to principal-agent problems?

Information asymmetry.

What does bureaucratic "shirking" mean?

Officials pursuing goals other than their principal's goals.

What is New Public Management?

A reform approach emphasizing markets, outsourcing, and entrepreneurship.

What does the Westminster NPM model emphasize?

Outsourcing nonessential government functions.

What did Progressive reformers seek in government employment?

Merit-based government.

What is a faction according to Federalist 10?

A group united by shared interests or beliefs.

Who wrote Federalist 10?

James Madison.

Why did Madison believe factions are inevitable?

People have different opinions, wealth, and property.

Why can't government simply eliminate factions?

Eliminating their causes would require eliminating liberty.

How should government respond to factions?

Limit their harmful effects through institutional design.

What is an interest group?

A voluntary association attempting to influence government.

Are interest groups part of the formal political system?

No; they operate independently while trying to influence it.

What are economic interest groups primarily organized around?

Economic or occupational interests.

What are citizen/public-interest groups organized around?

Ideas or causes.

What is a social movement organization (SMO)?

A group pursuing collective change, often outside institutionalized decision-making.

What is a collective good?

A benefit aimed broadly at society rather than only group members.

What are nonprofits generally focused on?

Broad societal objectives or collective goods.

What is a political party?

A group sharing similar ideas about government's function and scope.

What type of party system has historically dominated the U.S.?

A two-party system.

What electoral system helps reinforce the U.S. two-party system?

Winner-take-all elections.

What is one function of political parties?

Run candidates.

How do political parties affect voter participation?

They mobilize voter turnout.