History of Science in 6 Ideas - Test 2

Julien de Offrey La Mettrie

18th century

French materialist philosopher

thinks of the human body as a machine

Mechanism

18th century Europe

reducing the body to a machine

becomes a system of thinking and life

new debates were constantly appearing

Automata

16th century Europe

life like mechanisms and machines invented to mimic actions of living things

suggested logical theories to mechanism ideals, that a machine looks/acts/behaves like a human

Jacques de Vaucanson

18th century

French inventor

most famous creator of automata, creator of "Digesting Duck" and "Flute and Tamborine Player"

The Mechanical Turk

made by Von Kemplen in 1770 - Hungarian architect

lifesize chess player that could compete against any human

was scary but ended up being a hoax (was a human hidden in a box)

Age of Exploration/Classification/Organization

17th to 18th century: explorers are increasingly encountering the Europe and Asian Great Apes

Carl Linnaeus

18th century

Swedish Botanist and zoologist

responsible for binomial naming system of class/organization

argues that man and apes have same structure

17th century to 19 century racial science

science of race turned to emphasized hierarchies of race groups

Racial Science in the 18th + 19th century

Racial science serves the political purpose of animal will

Theories involved violence and slavery and removal

Scientific theories about racial difference helped to legitimize practices of colonization, enslavement and violence

Blumenbach

German anthropologist, 18th century

Won his appeal for 5 races: C,M,E,A,M

Uses crainology to convey his ideas

Crainiology

18th century foundation of racial science - brain/skull was used for size of mind's intelligence/reason

Monogenism

all races have a single common origin, Europe oringinated

Polygenism

all races have a different common origin point

Degeneration Theory

humans, societies, or biological families can decline from a higher state into physical, intellectual, or mental ruin (declining)

Monogenism Inclusive Theory

Peter Camper - Dutch anatomist, 18th century, famous for facial angle and experimental method on one origin, was a monogenesis believer

"single inclusive family"

Polygenism Theory

no single origin, implies a fixed species, different races have different qualities, US idea promoted by American scientist: Samuel George Morton (19th century, wrote Craftia Americana), was a polygenesis believer

Samuel George Morton

19th century, American naturalist

Morton founded ethnography and the Philly School of Ethnography and was obsessed with the skull, especially Native American skulls

Joshua Nott

19th century, American surgeon/anthropologist

slaveholder in the south

leading figure in polygenism

published "Types of Mankind" in 1854, which advocated for polygenesis, and later both published "Indigenous Races of the Earth" in 1857

Great Chain of Being

all living things are theologically hierarchized on a ladder

Samuel Cartwright

(19th century, American physician)

worked on plantations in the South and served in the Civil War confederacy as a surgeon, supported slavery

Cartwright published "Report on the Diseases and Peculiarities on the Negro Race" in 1851, which used biblical arguments + anatomical Africans to convey that negroes were "meant for slavery"

Giraffe-Lamarckian Theory

proposed by French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, states that giraffe necks grew longer because individual giraffes stretched their necks to reach high tree leaves and passed those acquired traits on to their offspring

William Paley

18th century English theologian/philosopher

wrote "Natural Theology" (1802) - how God shaped creation, 1844 - idealized how all creation was precedent to a past form

Charles Darwin

1809-1882, British gentleman scientist

Darwin abroads the HMS Beagle Ship to the Galapagos, 1831 to 1836

He reads Paley's "Natural Theology" and becomes a naturalist, emphasis on age of exploration/information from "lay of the land"

Different beaks on birds, from different islands, eating different nuts/seeds

Darwin's sketch of an evolutionary tree in 1837, how birds adapted from ancestors and natural evolutionary change

Alfred Russell Wallace

19th century British gentleman scientist

"Wallace Line" - sent to Malaysian Islands, Wallace notices different plants/animals/birds features, flora/fauna are divided by a geographic line

Timeline of Wallace vs Darwin

1858 - Wallace writes to Darwin the "natural selection" letter publication

1859 - Darwin publishes "On the Origin of Species" about natural selection

1871 - Darwin publishes "On the Descent of Man" sexual selection centerpiece that natural selection arises in certain situations of characteristics that attract

Natural selection v. survival of the fittest

Natural selection

process where organisms are more adapted to their environment are more able suitable to live and reproduce - only animals have origin, not humans or origin

Social darwinism

claim that concepts of natural selection can be applied to society, politics and power - the strong should be more powerful and the weak should be weaker - relatable to Authoristists, Fascists, Eugenicists

Herbert Spencer

1820-1907, British psychologist and anthropologist of evolution and survival of the fittest

He claims that natural theory is fit for society with an added connotation to not interfere w/ Nature's Laws

Sir Frances Galton

British statistician (19th century), in 1883 he coins the term "eugenics" and "good stock", thinking that the fit only should reproduce

Consensus Formed on Heredity in Evolutionary Biology

Darwin + Wallace (provides theory + natural/sexual selection)

Mendel (provides mechanism of genes)

Both form a scientific consensus on how heredity works/forms evolutionary biology

Eugenics

Political/social interpretations of Darwin theory became practical applications forming Eugenics

Positive eugenics - Encouraging the fit reproducing

Negative eugenics - how to stop the unfit from reproducing

Sterilization and Richard Dugdale

18th + 19th century

reproductive control - eugenic practice

Richard Dugdale, 1877, sociologist, The Dukes - if we sterilized one lady "Ada Juke" in 1740, it would solve most of society's today problems

Sterilization Timeline

1907: First Sterilization Law in Indiana

1927: Buck v. Bell - a landmark 1927 U.S. Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of forced sterilization laws targeting individuals deemed "socially inadequate"

1990s: Dr. Harry Sharp - Indiana - works in prisons illegally performing 500 vasectomies of males in prison

Buck v. Bell (1927)

1924: New Law in VA: Carrie Buck test cage

landmark 1927 U.S. Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of forced sterilization laws targeting individuals deemed "socially inadequate

"Oliver Wendell Holmes - "3 generations of imbeciles are enough"

Carrie is sterilized by law - SC upholds the sterilization law

Helps to legitimize sterilization usage/practice spread

19th century mind sciences

mind separates humans from animals, becomes major focal point

3 big mind sciences: Neurology, Psychiatry and Psychology

Aftermath of Buck v Bell

Targeted institutionalized populations for legal sterilization (prisons, orphanages, mental asylums)

Justified sterilizing women in color

Fannie Lou Hamer

20th century, female civil rights activist

MS Appendectomy

Women in color were sterilized by no consent

A white doctor performed a procedure on her while she was knocked out with no consent. Hamer's public testimony helped bring widespread visibility to reproductive violence and forced sterilization abuses across the South

3 big Mind Science Definitions

Neurology: science on Nervous system and brain waves anatomically

Psychiatry: study and treatment of mental disorders

Psychology: study of behavior and cognition

(EXTRA: Philosophy: trying to make sense of mind/body connection)

Phineas Gage

19th century American laborer

Personality change from railroad incident to his head

Looking for lesions and injuries to the brain on his autopsy

Behavior change in mind = cerebral localization

Broca and Wernicke

Paul Broca (19th century, French) + Carl Wernicke (19th century German), formed Broca's center in brain and Wernicke's area in brain (both help with speech and language comprehension/production)

Psychiatry from the 18th-19th century

physicians start entering mental illness studies, focus is on classification and care

Phillippe Panel

18th century, French physician

At the Salpetriere, Paris, 1790s

Moral treatment at the famous asylum (mental treatment), uses sympathy + authority to guide mental back to reasoning

The York Retreat

English philanthropist, 1796, William Take

Used "moral treatment" - same emphasis as Panel, authority was given as "work as therapy" and a father figure given, moral as to treat people normally

Thomas Story Kirkbride

19th c, american psychiatrist

The Kirkbride Plan

"for moral architecture, you ultimately want your asylum aesthetic/peaceful/protected"

Enforce moral improvement notions, rewards + disappointments

Sigmund Freud

19th century Austrian psychologist, founder of psycho-analytics

"The talking cure", the id/ego/superego and the un/pre/subconscious

Helps structure how people's minds work

Ego - the thinker of reality, sense of self

Id - unconscious sense of needs/desires/pleasure principle

Super ego - half parts - internalization of culture

William James

19th century American psychologist, published first ever US psych textbook in 1890, the Principles of Psychology

Ivan Pavlov

19th century, Russian psychologist

Classical conditioning + Pavlov's dog: observed that dogs naturally salivated at the sight of food. This process proves that living things can form unconscious behavioral associations between a signal and a natural reflex.

John B. Watson

19th century, US psychologist

classical conditioning + Little albert experiment

Babies shown fluffy or fuzzy things and a loud noise conveyed an unconditioned response

B.F. Skinner

20th century, US psychologist

free will is an allusion, proving stimulus is real

Operant conditioning + skinner box - used positive and negative reinforcements to see how consequences for mice shaped behavior

Cognition Events and Timeline

World War II (1939-1945)

The Nuremberg Trials (1945-46)

The Nuremberg Code (1947)

Conveyed the traumatic medical experimentation in concentration camps

The Doctors Trial: 23 doctors went to US courts for Holocaust conditions revealed

Movement from behavior to cognition in the early 20th century

Cognitive psychology becomes dominant after WW2

Stanley Milgram

20th century American scientist - Obedience studies

During Eichmann Trial he used student (electronic leads) and teacher for memory and willingness to listen to authority to see how far the teacher would "dial"

Nature vs Natural

Nature: all or beyond earth phenomena, associations + definitions have their problems

Natural: can improve or legitimize how the world is

Natural history

qualitative and descriptive, study of organisms and observations, collections and displays and classifications

Natural history shaped: descriptions, collections, classifications - "What?"

Natural philosophy

Explanatory, reasoning, quantitative, empirical/statistical, used scientific methods and experiments

Natural philosophy shaped: explanations and reasoning - "Why?"

Pliny the Elder

23-79 CE, Roman chief natural historian

set the ground and wrote Historia Naturalis

During his travels he discovered different wildlife observations on zoology

"Great chain of being" regarding collecting:

what things scientists had access to, to collect information

Classifying Materials Used

Herbariums and Materia Medicas were useful, main sources of info for classifying plants and nature

Also included were Medieval bestiaries (encyclopedias on animals) w/ secondhand accounts

Timeline of Info Collection/Classification

The Columbian Exchange (1490s) offers an information overload during this time

16th century focused on collecting all the things - which led to money being put into this from royal figures

18th century focused on classifying all the things

Displaying Collections

Natural history displays and museums collect and convey nature, depicted as a problem - not ideal to society or world

Preservation Serving Purpose

Preservation served to fix the messy nature of history and preserved the appearance of natural history - which posed an assumption problem that troubled boundaries between art and nature

Preservation Representation Purpose

Trying to represent clean and untouched nature w/ no human world interference, what do we do with untouched nature - led to the trouble with wilderness

Lewis and Clark expedition

19th century, explore and map/trial out the territory of plants/animals/overhead trail, funded by American philosophical society (Ben Franklin) - earned scientific support and gov. support

John James Audubon

18th century, French-American artist

wrote Birds of America in 1827, sent to the US to study birds and escape the Napoleon War

known for his beautiful bird illustrations, pushed interest/reveal of exploring frontier scientifically

Henry David Thoreau

19th century American naturalist

surveyor of land

Walden Pond, near Concord, MA - built a shack on the pond and lived there for 2 years

written with Transcendentalism - art/notion of simplicity and taking care of optimistic self of nature

"wilderness is beautiful" - responsibility of humans to preserve natural world

Manifest Destiny

1845, destiny as a nation to expand/colonize across the US

American exceptionalism

duty to remake/civilize the Westward land

indigenous people don't deserve their land - due to new technology

Preservation

"hands off"

preserving untouched nature for sublimity/worth protecting

Conservation

"hands on"

managing use of nature to maintain it w/ humans

National Parks in USA

1864 - Yosemite Grant (lincoln)

1872 - Yellowstone National Park (Grant)

1906 - Yosemite is officially a state national park

John Muir

19th century, Scottish-American botanist and hiker

100 mile walk through Yosemite (Sees it as special)

Founded Sierra club in 1892, this was an org. for preservation and how nature is constructed

As an expeditor in Yosemite, he explored the natural world and had a strong voice as a naturalist

Roosevelt

19th century, American president

supporter of conservation in environment

robust masculinity ideal, supported protection of nature to be responsibly used

Gifford Pinchot

19th century, 1st ever US forester

Chief of Division of Forestry Service

held a conservation ethic

believed we should use/manage land w care