Social & Personality Development in Early Childhood (Ages 2-6)

What is the core assumption of psychoanalytic theories regarding social development?

Internal drives and emotional conflicts drive development. As children mature, they must learn to adapt these inner forces to social expectations and take responsibility for their behavior.

What are Freud's two preschool stages, their ages, and their central developmental tasks?

Anal Stage (Ages 1-3): Mastering toilet training and gaining bodily control. Phallic Stage (Ages 3-6): Resolving the Oedipal/Electra conflict by identifying with the same-sex parent to build gender and moral foundations.

What is Erikson's stage for ages 1 to 3, and what is the central conflict?

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (End of Year 1 to Age 3): Triggered by new physical mobility. The conflict is balancing the child's desire for autonomy with environmental boundaries.

What is Erikson's stage for ages 3 to 6, and what is the central conflict?

Initiative vs. Guilt (Ages 3-6): Triggered by new cognitive planning skills. The conflict is taking goal-directed initiative vs. managing a developing conscience.

THE WHY: Why does excessive guilt develop during Erikson's Initiative vs. Guilt stage?

Mechanism: Overly harsh parental control or punishment. When a child's enthusiastic planning and initiative are repeatedly suppressed, they internalize excessive guilt and defensiveness, hindering later crisis resolution.

How does Social-Cognitive Theory differ from Psychoanalytic Theory regarding social change?

Social-cognitive theory argues social and emotional changes are driven by expanding cognitive abilities—especially Theory of Mind and person perception—rather than purely internal emotional drives.

What is person perception, and when do children start using trait labels?

The emerging ability to categorize other people. By ages 4-5, children actively use trait labels like "nice" or "mean".

THE WHY: Why are a 4-year-old's judgments of people inconsistent (e.g., calling a friend "nice" Monday but "mean" Tuesday)?

Mechanism: Recency Bias in Memory. Preschoolers base their person perception judgments primarily on the most recent interaction rather than integrating long-term behavioral patterns.

When does self-segregation by gender and race begin in early childhood?

Gender self-segregation begins as early as age 2. Racial self-segregation and race awareness emerge shortly after as children form "like-me" categories.

What are race schemas, and what cognitive mechanism creates preschool racial stereotypes?

Consistent mental categories for race. They are driven by egocentric generalization: preschoolers observe one trait in a person and assume everyone in that racial category shares the exact same preferences.

What is Social Domain Theory?

A framework proposing that children categorize rules into three distinct cognitive domains: moral rules, social conventions, and the psychological domain.

What is the fundamental difference between a moral rule and a social convention?

Moral Rules: Universal principles protecting fairness and preventing physical/emotional harm (e.g., stealing or hitting is wrong anywhere). Social Conventions: Arbitrary customs created to maintain social order (e.g., table manners or driving side).

At what age do children distinguish between moral rules and social conventions?

Between ages 2 and 3, toddlers recognize that moral transgressions (taking a toy) are far more serious than convention violations (forgetting "thank you"), even without an explicit rule.

How did Piaget view preschool understanding of intent, and how did modern research challenge him?

Piaget thought preschoolers ignore intent due to egocentrism. Modern research proves 3-year-olds know intentional harm is worse than accidental harm and say "It was an accident!" to avoid harsh punishment.

What were the results of the classic picture-story ball study on 3-year-olds and intentions?

3-year-olds judged a child who intended to hit a playmate as "naughty". However, if the child intended to hit but missed (failed outcome), they still called them "good," proving outcomes still weigh heavily alongside intent.

What is effortful control?

The ability to intentionally regulate emotional states and impulses to adapt to a specific situational demand.

THE WHY: How does playing "Duck, Duck, Goose" build effortful control and peer acceptance?

Mechanism: Social Reinforcement. Waiting to be chosen requires inhibiting impulses. Jumping up out of turn leads to scolding or peer rejection, teaching the child that impulse control brings higher social rewards.

How does personality differ from temperament?

Temperament is the inborn biological style of reacting. Personality is temperament plus the knowledge, emotional regulation, and social strategies learned throughout childhood.

What are the Three Selves that form a preschooler's self-concept?

Categorical Self: Objective traits (gender, age, hair color). Emotional Self: Ability to regulate emotional states (effortful control). Social Self: Understanding one's role in social routines and family networks.

What is emotional regulation, and what are its long-term peer consequences?

The ability to control emotional states and accompanying behavior. High regulation leads to popularity; low regulation leads to peer rejection, aggression, and future internalizing/externalizing problems.

What is Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD) in preschoolers?

A condition where preschoolers experience frequent, intense rage tantrums involving aggressive, destructive behavior beyond typical developmental outbursts.

What is the difference between empathy and sympathy?

Empathy: Identifying with another's emotional state by recognizing and matching it. Sympathy: A general feeling of sorrow or concern for another person's distress.

What is Stage 1 in Hoffman's Empathy model?

Global Empathy (First Year): Automatic emotional contagion where an infant matches another's distress (e.g., crying when hearing another baby cry).

What is Stage 2 in Hoffman's Empathy model?

Egocentric Empathy (12-18 Months): Responding to another's distress with personal sadness and offering comfort using what would comfort oneself (e.g., giving a sad friend one's own blanket).

What is Stage 3 in Hoffman's Empathy model?

Empathy for Another's Feelings (Preschool Years): Responding in non-egocentric ways tailored to the other person's specific problem (e.g., helping search for a friend's lost toy).

What is Stage 4 in Hoffman's Empathy model?

Empathy for Another's Life Condition (Older Childhood/Teens): Feeling deep empathy for chronic life situations or systemic hardship (e.g., poverty, refugee camps).

What are moral emotions, and what triggers Guilt, Shame, and Pride?

Culturally valued emotions. Guilt: Triggered by breaking a rule. Shame: Triggered by failing to meet expectations. Pride: Triggered by meeting or exceeding expectations.

THE WHY: How do moral emotions develop in young children?

Mechanism: Internalization via Warm Relationships. Moral emotions require warm, trusting parent-child relationships where adults explain rules, allowing the child to internalize standards into a personal conscience.

What are social scripts, and how do they emerge by age 2?

Mental representations of social routines. By age 2, toddlers understand play routines and take on explicit roles ("helper", "boss").

How does the "student" role script promote preschool classroom independence?

Mechanism: Automating expectations. The "student" script tells the child to listen, raise their hand, and put away toys, freeing the teacher from directing every single minute.

How is gender defined in developmental psychology?

The psychological, social, and cultural associations attached to biological sex.

How does Social Learning Theory explain gender development, and what is its flaw?

Parents reinforce sex-typed activities from 18 months. Flaw: Gender behavior emerges even when parents treat sons and daughters identically.

What is Step 1 in Kohlberg's Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender?

Gender Identity (Age 2): Correctly labeling oneself as a boy or girl. Labeling others follows 6-12 months later.

What is Step 2 in Kohlberg's Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender?

Gender Stability (Age 4): Understanding that gender remains the same across a lifetime (boys grow into men), though still confused by external appearance changes.

What is Step 3 in Kohlberg's Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender?

Gender Constancy (Ages 5-6): Realizing gender is permanent and biological, and cannot be altered by clothes, hair length, or play choices.

How does Gender Schema Theory differ from Kohlberg's theory on timing?

Gender Schema Theory proves children form a gender framework at ages 2-3, which acts as an "information magnet" shaping play choices long before understanding gender constancy at ages 5-6.

How do gender schemas expand across ages 3-4, 4-6, and 8-10?

Ages 3-4: Learn broad distinctions and gender scripts. Ages 4-6: Build complex associations for their own gender. Ages 8-10: Build equally complex schemas for the opposite gender.

What biological hormones influence gender-typed play and bonding?

Testosterone: Increases rough-and-tumble play and protective behavior. Oxytocin: Promotes pair-bonding and nurturing behavior in both sexes.

What gender stereotypes do children know at ages 2, 3, 3-4, 4, and 5?

Age 2: Objects (vacuum vs. tools). Age 3: Daily tasks (stove vs. grill). Ages 3-4: Occupations and toys. Age 4: Skills. Age 5: Personality traits (assertiveness vs. nurturance).

THE WHY: What did the "George Study" (doll play) reveal about why 6-year-olds are rigid about gender stereotypes?

Mechanism: Information-Processing Simplicity. 5- to 6-year-olds seek all-or-none rules, treating gender conventions like absolute moral rules. By age 9, cognitive flexibility allows them to separate custom from moral wrong.

What is gender-typed behavior, and when do toy and playmate preferences appear?

Behavior typical for one's assigned sex in a culture. Toy preferences appear at 18-24 months. Same-gender playmate preference emerges at age 3.

What is Maccoby's Enabling Communication Style?

Typically female-typed style focused on equality, support, agreement, and making suggestions to keep interactions going.

What is Maccoby's Constricting Communication Style?

Typically male-typed style focused on status, boasting, interrupting, contradicting, and self-display that derails interaction.

Define Assigned Sex vs. Gender Identity vs. Gender Expression.

Assigned Sex: Biological label at birth based on anatomy/chromosomes. Gender Identity: Personal internal sense of being male, female, both, or neither. Gender Expression: External presentation (clothing, hair).

Define Cisgender vs. Transgender.

Cisgender: Gender identity aligns with cultural expectations for assigned sex. Transgender: Persistent, consistent, and insistent sense that identity does not match assigned sex.

What is cross-gender behavior, and how are tomboys treated vs. cross-gender boys?

Behavior unusual for assigned sex. Tomboys are culturally tolerated; boys showing cross-gender play face immediate peer disapproval and adult concern.

At what age do transgender children typically state a clear identity mismatch?

A consistent, explicit claim is typically stated by ages 8-9, though diverse behavior begins much earlier in preschool.

How do socially affirmed transgender preschoolers perform on gender schema tasks?

They show no differences compared to cisgender peers sharing their gender identity, demonstrating identical gender schematic processing.

What unique difference do socially affirmed transgender children show regarding Kohlberg's stages?

They and their siblings express greater uncertainty about how gender stability and constancy apply to other people.

What is Social Affirmation?

Adopting hairstyles, clothing, names, and expressions that match one's internal gender identity.

How does attachment behavior change between infancy and preschool (ages 2-3)?

Overt separation anxiety fades into subtle behaviors: preschoolers wander farther from their safe base, but use shared plans ("I'll see you after naptime") to manage separation.

In what two areas do 2-year-olds comply MOST vs. LEAST with parents?

Comply Most: Safety rules ("Hot!") and Care of Objects ("Don't tear the book"). Comply Least: Delays ("Wait a minute") and Self-care ("Wash hands").

What is the Age-4 Attachment Shift (Bowlby)?

Around age 4, children realize affectionate bonds are permanent across distance, and their internal attachment model generalizes to teachers and peers.

What are Baumrind's 4 Dimensions of Parenting?

(1) Warmth/Nurturance, (2) Clarity/Consistency of rules, (3) Level of Maturity Demands, (4) Open Communication.

What is Authoritative Parenting, and what outcomes does it predict?

High Warmth, High Control/Demands, High Communication. Predicts high self-esteem, compliance, altruism, higher IQ, and academic success.

What is Authoritarian Parenting, and what outcomes does it predict?

Low Warmth, High Control/Demands, Low Communication. Predicts low self-esteem, difficulty making decisions, peer aggression, and lower academic achievement.

What is Permissive Parenting, and what outcomes does it predict?

High Warmth, Low Control/Demands, Low Communication. Predicts social immaturity, emotional dependency, and low self-regulation.

What is Uninvolved Parenting, and what outcomes does it predict?

Low Warmth, Low Control/Demands. Predicts insecure attachment, impulsivity, poor peer relationships, and anti-social behavior.

What is Belsky's Process Model of Parenting?

A model stating parenting is shaped by three interacting contexts: Parent Characteristics (personality), Child Characteristics (temperament), and Family Stresses/Support.

What is inductive discipline, and who benefits from it?

Explaining why a behavior is wrong without physical punishment. Helps children build self-control and perspective-taking.

THE WHY: How does a "hostile cycle" develop between parents and difficult children?

Mechanism: Coercive Escalation. A difficult child resists authority, frustrating parents into hostile or inconsistent discipline, which reinforces the child's defiance and maintains the cycle.

What is power assertion?

Using physical or emotional power (spanking, scolding, privilege removal) to force behavioral change.

THE WHY: Why does spanking persist despite negative long-term outcomes?

Mechanism: Short-Term Operant Reinforcement for the Parent. Spanking produces immediate child compliance, which positively reinforces the parent to spank more often.

What are the 4 long-term negative effects of spanking?

(1) Models pain as a way to control others, (2) Associates the parent with fear/pain, (3) Creates a climate of emotional rejection, (4) Increases child aggression.

What were the findings of the 56-nation physical punishment survey?

Parents using mild physical punishment were nearly 3 times as likely to cross into severe child abuse (22% vs. 8%).

What are the age guidelines regarding physical punishment?

Never under 18 months; rarely between 18-24 months; discontinue as language and reasoning develop.

What is the Premack Principle in behavior management?

Using a high-probability preferred activity as leverage to motivate a less-preferred behavior (e.g., "No TV unless whining stops" or "Clean room first, then play").

Which racial group shows the highest prevalence of authoritative parenting?

Authoritative parenting is most common among White families and least common among Asian American families, but predicts positive outcomes across all groups.

What is Preparation for Bias in African American parenting?

Racial socialization messages designed to build resilience against prejudice and discrimination.

What is the difference between Cultural Empowerment and Egalitarian messages?

Cultural Empowerment: Teaches ethnic pride and heritage. Egalitarian: Minimizes group differences and stresses individual effort. Boys receive more cultural empowerment; girls receive more egalitarian messages.

How has two-parent family prevalence changed in the U.S. from 1970 to 2020?

Dropped from nearly 95% in 1970 to 70% in 2020.

What is the overall percentage breakdown of U.S. child living arrangements (Figure 8.3)?

70% Two Parents, 26% One Parent, 4% No Parents.

What are the gender and income statistics for single-parent homes?

80% mother-headed (avg income $35,000); 20% father-headed (avg income $56,000). Single mothers are twice as likely to face food insecurity.

THE WHY: Why are full-time working single fathers twice as likely to live in poverty as single mothers?

Mechanism: Lack of Non-Work/Alimony Income. Single fathers receive far less non-work financial support, alimony, or child support assistance.

What is Kin Orientation in Native American families?

A cultural structure where parenting is shared across the entire extended family network, providing material and emotional support that buffers single parenthood.

How many U.S. families are headed by same-sex couples, and what are their child outcomes?

~300,000 families. Children show no differences in gender identity, sexual orientation, or emotional development compared to heterosexual households.

How many U.S. grandparents are primary custodial caregivers, and what are their main stresses?

7 million+ grandparents. Stresses include fear of dying before the child grows up, health decline, and managing the child's prior trauma.

What is a Multigenerational Household, and what proportion of U.S. kids live in one?

A household with 3+ generations. Includes 10% of U.S. children (highest among Native Hawaiians at 25.3%, lowest among non-Hispanic Whites at 7.8%).

What are the short-term physiological and academic chains triggered by divorce?

Divorce Stress Chain: Conflict/disruption $\rightarrow$ Sleep trouble $\rightarrow$ Lowered immunity $\rightarrow$ Increased illness $\rightarrow$ Missed school $\rightarrow$ Dropping grades.

What long-term health effect can high-conflict divorce cause in midlife?

Adults who experienced high-conflict childhood parental divorce show altered immune system functioning in midlife.

What is the Risk-Resilience Approach to family structure?

Viewing divorce as a series of risk factors (financial drops, moves) where parental protective factors buffer the child to foster resilience.

What single factor matters MOST for child development during family disruption?

Parenting Style Quality (maintaining authoritative practices) matters far more than family structure or disruption itself.

What are the 5 C's of protective factors during divorce?

(1) Coparenting plan, (2) Communication between parents, (3) Child's emotional regulation, (4) Counseling, (5) Contact with extended family/grandparents.

How do coparenting agreements benefit single mothers?

Women with legal coparenting agreements are more likely to work full-time, and half earn over $100,000.

What happens to teen behavior if parental divorce occurred during preschool?

Teens whose parents divorced in preschool spend more time online and face higher risks of video game addiction and cyberbullying victimization.

What is Parten's Solitary Play and Onlooker Play?

Solitary: Playing completely alone. Onlooker: Watching another child play without joining in.

What is Parten's Parallel Play, and when does it emerge?

Playing side-by-side with different toys without interacting. Emerges at 12-18 months.

What is Parten's Associative Play, and when does it emerge?

Engaging in separate activities while having brief, spontaneous social interactions (chasing, sharing). Emerges at 18 months+.

What is Parten's Cooperative Play, and when does it emerge?

Working together toward a shared constructive or symbolic goal. Emerges at ages 3+.

What are play connection skills, and when do they appear?

Observing group play and asking "Can I play too?". Evident by age 4 with peers.

How does aggression shift in form between ages 2-4 and 4-8?

Physical aggression peaks at ages 2-4 and declines. Verbal aggression (taunting, name-calling) becomes dominant between ages 4 and 8 as language expands and egocentrism declines.

What is the difference between Instrumental and Hostile aggression?

Instrumental: Aimed at gaining or damaging an object/space. Hostile: Aimed at physically or emotionally hurting a person.

THE WHY: Why is the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis considered too broad?

Mechanism: Frustration makes aggression more likely, but as communication, planning, and emotional regulation grow, frustration rarely leads to overt aggression.

How do parents accidentally reinforce long-term aggression in children?

Giving in to violent tantrums rewards the behavior, operantly reinforcing a long-lasting pattern of aggression and defiance.

What is trait aggression, and what discipline style fosters it?

Aggression as a permanent lifestyle pattern. Fostered by coercive, abusive discipline and lack of affection (especially in boys).

How do aggressive 4-year-olds interact with peers?

Aggressive boys as young as 4 seek out other aggressive boys, forming stable peer groups that reward and escalate aggressive behavior into adolescence.

How do school-age aggressive children misinterpret social intentions?

They show a hostile attribution bias, reasoning like 2- to 3-year-olds by viewing accidental bumps as intentional attacks requiring retaliation.

What is prosocial behavior (altruism), and when does it start?

Intentional, voluntary behavior meant to help another person. Starts at ages 2-3 (helping, sharing, comforting).

What 6 parent behaviors foster altruism in children (WEPAOM)?

Warmth and loving climate. Explaining effects of actions on others. Positive rules ("It's good to help"). Attributions (calling child helpful). Opportunities to help at home. Modeling generosity.

When do stable playmate friendships form, and why are they important?

Playmate preferences begin at 18 months; stable friendships emerge by ages 3-4. Friends foster reciprocity, mutual support in novel situations, and long-term social competence.