Psychology of Personality Exam #1

personality

the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that are organized and relatively enduring and that influence his/her interactions with, and adaptations to, the intrapsychic, physical, and social environments

barnum effect

the belief that vague general personality descriptions apply specifically and uniquely to you (horoscope, fortune tellers, online personality quizzes)

personality psych and other fields

Personality psychology is sometimes discussed within clinical psychology and social psychology

behavior = f(P x E)

P: personality, E: environment

S data

self-report→ ask the person

O data

observer-report→ ask someone who knows the person well

L data

life outcomes→ verifiable, objective, may hold psychological significance

T data

test data→ results from a standardized testing procedure

good survey items

are clear, tap into all aspects of the trait, will apply in your sample, allow for variance

creating an operational definition

turning a vague, abstract idea into a clear, measurable action or test

one goal in personality psychology

taking vague constructs and operationalizing them

reliability

a test/measurement tool consistently produces the same results under unchanged conditions

validity

the extent to which a test, tool, or study accurately measures or reflects what it claims to measure

generalization

the degree to which research findings from a specific sample can be applied to broader populations, different settings, and other time periods

test-retest reliability

measure across times and places, stable traits should be consistent

alternate-form reliability

minimizes suspicion, minimizes practice effects

construct validity

how well a test/measure actually measures an abstract, unobservable concept→ intelligence, anxiety, happiness, etc.

face validity

what does the person think this scale is measuring

internal consistency

a measure of reliability that evaluates whether different items/questions on a test/survey/scale meant to measure the same underlying concept produce similar scores

factor analysis

a statistical method used to reduce a large number of observed variables down to a smaller, unobserved set of latent variables called factors

convergent validity

logically, what should it correlate with?

discriminant validity

logically, what should it not correlate with

Eysenck

PEN (psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism)

lexical approach

a method of identifying fundamental personality traits by analyzing the words and everyday language people use to describe human behavior

theoretical approach

some theory dictates importance

agreeableness definition

prosocial and community orientation, considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, compassionate, willing to compromise

agreeableness opposite

hostile, aggressive, selfish

agreeableness correlates with

popularity and generosity

conscientiousness definition

socially prescribed impulse control, organized, responsible, hardworking, goal-directed

conscientiousness opposite

irresponsible, disorganized, impulsive

conscientiousness correlates with

work success, years of education, perfectionism

extraversion definition

focus on the external world, gain energy from social interaction, and stimulation

extraversion opposite

introversion, less reflective

extraversion correlates with

happiness, enthusiasm, successful relationships, energy, leadership

neuroticism definition

tendency to express negative emotions. Low tolerance for stress. Emotionally reactive, unstable

neuroticism opposite

emotional stability

neuroticism correlates with

poor health, poor relationships, mental disorders, unhappiness

openness definition

breadth, depth, originality, and complexity of one’s mental and experiential life

openness opposite

closed minded

openness correlates with

creativity, intelligence, maturity

orthogonal

two variables/traits/factors are completely unrelated to each other (in this context, big five personality traits)

big five pros

• Evidence for biological basis of personality

• Renewed research in personality 

• Relates to important life outcomes

big five cons

• Openness→ inconsistent replication 

• Typical criticisms of factor analysis 

thin slices

making judgements based off a small amount of information

identity claims

deliberate signal what you value and how you want to be regarded→ photos, posters, souvenirs, tattoos, email signatures

feeling regulators

purpose is to manage our emotions and thoughts→ scented candles, cushy pillows, music, inspiration posters

behavioral residue

traces left in the environment by our everyday actions

aggregated data

the process of gathering raw info from multiple sources and combining it into summarized formats like totals, averages, or counts for easier analysis

challenges to good measurement

carelessness and faking

low in face validity

MMPI and CPI

issues with saying that traits predict important differences

• Cannot fairly discriminate against protected groups 

• Opaqueness can be a PR problem (Target) 

• Low reliability and validity of popular measures 

The Myers-Briggs (MBTI)

a very long measure that tells you your personality based on a series of letters (for example: ISTP, ESTP, ESFJ, etc.), 16 groups

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

over 500 true/false questions

why is the MBTI popular

• Famous! Solid marketing 

• Simple to score and interpret 

• Offers sensible predictions 

• Tells us nice things about ourselves 

• It can be a good icebreakers, gets people thinking about differences

The Hogan Personality Inventory

based on the Big Five, tons of research, brief and noninvasive, used more and more frequently

moderators of accuracy

qualities of the judge, of the target, of the trait being assessed, of the information

qualities of the judge

someone invested in others, people who make generally positive attributions about people

qualities of the target

who is the most judgeable? Stable, well-organized

qualities of the trait

which traits are more or less judgeable? External, social, visible traits

quantity (info)

more is better (aggregation)

quality (info)

info should be relevant to the trait in question

realistic accuracy model

1) trait relevant info is emitted by the target which 2) becomes available to the judge, who then 3) detects this info and 4) utilizes it correctly

the biological domain assumes

that biological systems provide the building blocks for personality

two sources of variation

effects of nature (genes) and nurture (environment)

heritability

proportion of phenotypic variance that is attributable to genetic variance

what heritability is NOT

cannot be applied to a single individual, isn’t constant/immutable, and isn’t a precise statistic

heritability and personality as stable

Heritability reinforces the idea that personality is stable

gene x environment interaction

genes may influence the environment you choose or how you act in the environments you’re put in

predictive validity

a test’s ability to accurately forecast future outcomes, behaviors, or performance

blood pressure

measure of stress reactivity

heart rate

increases with anxiety, fear, arousal, cognitive effort

electroencephalograph (EEG)

records the brain wave patterns produced by electrical activity of the surface of the brain (also called ERP)

PET scan

radioactive sugar is injected. Computers detect which part of the brain is using the sugar under different circumstances

MRI scan

magnetic fields and radio waves are used to produce detailed brain images

fMRI scan

assesses changes over time

ARAS

ascending reticular activating system, near the brain stem

Eysenck and introverts

Introverts receive more stimulation from the world

introverts/extroverts and arousability

introverts are more reactive to moderate levels of stimulation than extraverts

BAS

responsive to incentives and regulates approach behavior; dopamine system and nucleus accumbens (Behavioral Activation System)

BIS

responsive to cues to punishment, frustration, uncertainty, and motivates ceasing, inhibiting, or avoidance behavior; frontal levels (Behavioral Inhibition System)

monoamine oxidase (MAO)

enzyme that maintains a proper level of neurotransmitter

sensation seekers and MAO

high sensation seekers have low levels of MAO, producing a need for stimulation to reach the optimal level of arousal

dopamine

associated with pleasure

serotonin

associated with depression and other mood disorders

norepinephrine

associated with fight or flight response

Cloninger’s Tridimensional Personality Model

• Novelty seeking→ low levels of dopamine 

• Harm avoidance→ low levels of serotonin

• Reward dependence→ low levels of norepinephrine

two ways to think about how physiological variables are useful in personality theory and research

• Use physiological measures as variables that may be correlated with personality traits 

• View physiological events as providing casual substrate for personality trait – underlying process

personality change

internal change and relatively long-lasting change (no strict criteria)

population level change

everyone changes in the same way (for example, Freudian development)

group differences

only certain people change in a certain way (for example, sex differences)

individual differences

individuals change in unique ways

rank-order stability

you may change, but maintain your place relative to others

mean level stability

group stays the same (for example, people become happier with age)

personality coherence

trait is manifested differently over time

age and attention sensation seeking

sensation seeking peaks around 18-20

cohort effects

when sampling of different ages at the same time, apparent “change” can be due to living in different time period

studying abroad and personality change

those abroad (one semester or entire year) showed significant increases in Extraversion and Openness and decreases in Neuroticism compared to those who didn’t study abroad

where personality comes from

environment, people around you, how others describe you

phrenology

can determine personality by feeling bumps on head (Franz Gall)

six domains of knowledge

dispositional domain, biological domain, intrapsychic domain, cognitive-experimental domain, social and cultural domain, adjustment domain