Trails for exam 3 170 study sheet

growth hormone

anterior pituitary gland

too much is acromegaly too little would result in dwarfism

antidiuretic hormone ADH

posterior pituitary gland

too much results in weight gain too little dilute urine

parathyroid hormone

parathyriod is the source gland.

too much results in hyperthyroidism

too little hypocalcemia

insulin

beta cell in pancreatic

too much results in hypoglycemia; too little leads to hyperglycemia.

thyroid

largest endocrine gland

dual role organ and its two job

pancrease

• Hyperparathyroidism

• Bones lose calcium because calcium is released into the blood.

• Hypoparathyroidism: 

• Low calcium can cause tingling, muscle cramps, spasms, and tetany.

 Insulin

lowers blood glucose by helping glucose move from the bloodstream into cells.

• Too much insulin = 

• Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)

• Too little insulin or ineffective insulin = 

• Hyperglycemia (high blood sugar

The pancreas has two jobs:

• Endocrine function: Releases insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to regulate blood sugar.

• • Exocrine function: Releases digestive enzymes through ducts into the small intestine to help digest food.

Type 1 Diabetes

• Autoimmune disease.

• The immune system attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas.

• The body produces little to no insulin.

• Usually develops earlier in life, but can occur at any age.

• Requires insulin therapy.

Key term: Absolute insulin deficiency.

Type 2 Diabetes

• The body develops insulin resistance.

• Cells do not respond properly to insulin.

• The pancreas may initially produce more insulin, but eventually cannot keep up with the body’s needs.

• Often associated with genetics, excess body weight, and physical inactivity.

• Managed through lifestyle changes, medications, and sometimes insulin.

Key term: Insulin resistance.

• Insulin resistance:

• Body cells do not respond properly to insulin.

• Hyperglycemia:

• Abnormally high blood glucose.

• Hypoglycemia:

• Abnormally low blood glucose.

• Polyuria:

• Excessive urination.

• Polydipsia:

• Excessive thirst.

• Polyphagia: 

• Excessive hunger.

Both Type 1 and Type 2 can cause the three 

Ps:

• Polyuria

• Polydipsia

• • Polyphagia

DKA

Diabetic Ketoacidosis.It is a serious complication that occurs when the body does not have enough insulin and begins breaking down fat for energy.

Insulin deficiency – not enough insulin is available.

Step 1

Glucose cannot enter cells effectively.

step 2

Blood glucose rises (hyperglycemia).

step 3

Kidneys remove excess glucose through urine, causing osmotic diuresis.

step 4

Excessive urination causes dehydration and electrolyte loss.

step 5

The body breaks down fat for energy, producing ketones.

step 6

ketones build up, causeing metabolic acidosis 

step 7

DKA signs and symptoms

• Fruity-smelling breath.

• Nausea and vomiting.

• Abdominal pain.

• Excessive thirst.

• Frequent urination.

• Dehydration.

• Deep, rapid breathing (Kussmaul respirations).

• Confusion in severe cases.

Key term: Kussmaul respirations

Deep, rapid breathing that helps the body eliminate carbon dioxide to compensate for metabolic acidosis.

What causes LOW blood glucose?

• taking too much insulin.

• Taking too much diabetes medication that lowers glucose.

• Skipping or delaying a meal.

• Not eating enough carbohydrates.

• Exercising more than usual without adjusting food or medication.

• • Drinking alcohol without adequate food.

Diabetic neuropathy

is nerve damage caused by prolonged high blood glucose.

Sensory (Peripheral) Neuropathy

sensory nerves, especially in the feet and legs.

Signs and symptoms:

• Numbness.

• Tingling (pins and needles).

• Burning pain.

• Loss of sensation.

• Reduced ability to feel temperature or pain.

Functional consequences:

• Increased fall risk.

• Cannot feel injuries to feet.

• Increased risk of foot ulcers and infections.

• Difficulty with balance and walking.

PTA tip: Always check the feet for wounds and skin breakdown because the patient may not feel an injury.

Motor Neuropathy

Motor nerves that control muscles.

Signs and symptoms:

• Muscle weakness.

• Muscle wasting (atrophy).

• Decreased muscle control.

• Foot deformities.

• Foot drop.

Functional consequences:

• Difficulty walking.

• Abnormal gait.

• Poor balance.

• Increased fall risk.

• Difficulty with transfers.

PTA tip: Assess strength, gait, balance, and functional mobility.

autonomic neuropathy

Autonomic nerves that control involuntary body functions.

These include:

• Heart rate.

• Blood pressure.

• Digestion.

• Bladder function.

• Sweating.

Signs and symptoms:

• Orthostatic hypotension (blood pressure drops when standing).

• Dizziness.

• Gastroparesis (delayed stomach emptying).

• Bladder dysfunction.

• Abnormal sweating.

• Sexual dysfunction.

Functional consequences:

• Dizziness or fainting when standing.

• Increased fall risk.

• Digestive problems.

• Difficulty regulating body temperature.

PTA tip: Monitor blood pressure and watch for dizziness when moving a patient from sitting to standing.

Diabetic retinopathy (what is damaged)

A diabetes-related eye disease that affects the retina, leading to vision impairment. It results from damage to the blood vessels in the retina, causing them to leak fluid or bleed.

diabetic neuropathy (what is damaged)

kidneys

Peripheral neuropathy (what is damaged)

Peripheral nerves

Cardiovascular disease (what is damaged)

♡ and blood vessels, leading to reduced blood flow.

Peripheral artery disease (PAD)

Blood circulation to extremities

Diabetic foot ulcers what is affected

skin and tissue of feet

Diabetes damages the:

• Eyes

• Kidneys

• Nerves

• Heart

• • Feet

Open compound

fracture where the bone pierces the skin

closed (simple)

fracture where the bone does not pierce the skin

Comminuted

fracture where the bone is shattered into multiple pieces

Impacted

Push one broken end into another, causing them to compress together.

Greenstick

fracture where the bone bends and cracks on one side (partial fracture) without breaking completely through. typically in children

Compression

is a fracture caused by excessive force that crushes the bone, often seen in vertebrae.

Pathological

fracture occurring in a bone weakened by disease or condition, rather than due to high impact or stress.

sprain

tear in ligament

strain

muscle and tendon tear

avulsion injury

ligament or tendon completely separates

osgood schlatter syndrome

painful form of tendonitis

fibromyalgia

specific tender points for pain that can result in widespread muscle discomfort. It is characterized by chronic pain, fatigue, and sleep disturbances.

apnea

temporary cessation of breathing during sleep.

tachypnea

abnormally rapid breathing rate, often seen in response to stress or illness.

hyperpnea

increased depth and rate of breathing, typically occurring in response to exercise or metabolic demands.

dyspnea

difficult or labored breathing, often associated with underlying health conditions.

orthopnea

difficulty breathing when lying flat, typically relieved by sitting or standing.

hemoptysis

coughing up blood or blood-stained sputum, often indicative of a respiratory condition.

cyannosis

a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to inadequate oxygenation of the blood.

hypercapnia

an increased level of carbon dioxide in the blood, often leading to respiratory acidosis.

hypoxemia

a deficiency of oxygen in the blood, which can lead to symptoms like confusion, shortness of breath, and cyanosis.

tidal volume

the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing. 500 ml

Inspiratory reserve volume

the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation, typically around 3000 ml.

expiratory reserve volume

the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation, usually about 1100 ml.

residual volume

the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal exhalation, typically around 1200 ml.

vital capacity

the total amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inhalation, which includes tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory reserve volume; typically around 4800 ml.

total lung capacity

is the maximum amount of air that the lungs can hold, calculated as the sum of vital capacity and residual volume, typically around 6000 ml.

asthma

a chronic respiratory condition characterized by inflammation and narrowing of the airways, resulting in wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, and tightness in the chest.

acute bronchitis

is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes, often caused by viral infections, leading to coughing, mucus production, and difficulty breathing. It usually resolves after a few weeks.

chronic bronchitis

is a long-term inflammation of the bronchial tubes, often due to smoking or prolonged exposure to irritants, characterized by persistent cough and mucus production.

emphysema

is a progressive lung disease that destroys the air sacs in the lungs, leading to shortness of breath and reduced oxygen exchange. It is commonly caused by smoking and long-term exposure to airborne irritants.

COPD

is a group of lung diseases that obstruct airflow and make it difficult to breathe, primarily including chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

Cystic Fibrosis

is a genetic disorder that affects the lungs and digestive system, causing severe respiratory problems and digestion issues due to thick, sticky mucus production.

pneumothorax

is a condition where air leaks into the space between the lungs and chest wall, causing lung collapse and difficulty breathing. It can result from trauma, certain medical procedures, or lung disease.

pulmonary edema

is a condition characterized by excess fluid in the lungs, leading to impaired gas exchange and difficulty in breathing.

aspiration

occurs when food, liquid, or other substances enter the airway and lungs instead of the esophagus, which can lead to choking, infection, or pneumonia.

pleural effusion

is the accumulation of excess fluid in the pleural space surrounding the lungs, which can cause difficulty breathing and chest pain.